Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Dedication

Preface

Chapter 1: Keratin as Renewable Material to Develop Polymer Composites: Natural and Synthetic Matrices

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Keratin
1.3 Natural Fibers to Reinforce Composite Materials
1.4 Keratin, an Environmental Friendly Reinforcement for Composite Materials
1.5 Conclusions
References

Chapter 2: Determination of Properties in Composites of Agave Fiber with LDPE and PP Applied Molecular Simulation

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Materials and Methods
2.3 Results and Discussions
2.4 Conclusions
References

Chapter 3: Hydrogels in Tissue Engineering

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Classification of Hydrogels
3.3 Methods of Hydrogels Preparation
3.4 Hydrogels Characterization
3.5 Hydrogels Applications in Biology and Medicine
3.6 Concluding Remarks
References

Chapter 4: Smart Hydrogels: Application in Bioethanol Production

4.1 Hydrogels
4.2 History of Hydrogels
4.3 The Water in Hydrogels
4.4 Classifications of Hydrogels
4.5 Synthesis
4.6 Hydrogels Synthesized by Free Radical Polymerization
4.7 Monomers
4.8 Initiators
4.9 Cross-Linkers
4.10 Hydrogel Properties
4.11 Mechanical Properties
4.12 Biocompatible Properties
4.13 Hydrogels: Biomedical Applications
4.14 Techniques and Supports for Immobilization
4.15 Entrapment
4.16 Covalent Binding
4.17 Cross-Linking
4.18 Adsorption
4.19 Hydrogel Applications in Bioethanol Production
4.20 Classification of Biofuels
4.21 Ethanol Properties
4.22 Ethanol Production
4.23 Feedstock Pretreatment
4.24 Liquefaction and Saccharification Reactions
4.25 Fermentation Process
4.26 Continuous or Discontinuous Process?
4.27 Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF) Processes
4.28 Yeast and Enzymes Immobilized
References

Chapter 5: Principle Renewable Biopolymers and Their Biomedical Applications

5.1 Collagen
5.2 Elastin
5.3 Silk Fibroin
5.4 Chitosan
5.5 Chondroitin Sulfate
5.6 Cellulose
5.7 Hyaluronic Acid
5.8 Poly(L-lysine)
References

Chapter 6: Application of Hydrogel Biocomposites for Multiple Drug Delivery

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Sustained Drug Release Systems
6.3 Controlled Release Systems
6.4 Polymeric Drug Delivery Devices
6.5 Multiple Drug Delivery Systems
6.6 Tissue Engineering
6.7 Conclusion
References

Chapter 7: Non-Toxic Holographic Materials (Holograms in Sweeteners)

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sugars as Holographic Recording Medium
7.3 Photosensitizers
7.4 Sucrose Preparation and Film Generation
7.5 Corn Syrup
7.6 Hydrophobic Materials
7.7 PSV with Dyes
7.8 Pineapple Juice as Holographic Recording Material
7.9 Holograms Made with Milk
7.10 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References

Chapter 8: Bioplasitcizer Epoxidized Vegetable Oils–Based Poly(Lactic Acid) Blends and Nanocomposites

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Vegetable Oils
8.3 Expoxidation of Vegetable Oils
8.4 Poly(lactic acid)
8.5 Poly(lactic acid)/Epoxidized Vegetable Oil Blends
8.6 Polymer/Epoxidized Vegetable Oil Nanocomposites
8.7 Summary
References

Chapter 9: Preparation, Characterization, and Adsorption Properties of Poly(DMAEA) – Cross-Linked Starch Gel Copolymer in Wastewater

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Experimental Procedure
9.3 Results and Discussion
9.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgement
References

Chapter 10: Study of Chitosan Cross-Linking Genipin Hydrogels for Absorption of Antifungal Drugs Using Molecular Modeling

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Methodology
10.3 Results and Discussions
References

Chapter 11: Pharmaceutical Delivery Systems Composed of Chitosan

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Chitosan Micro- and Nanoparticles
11.3 Bioadhesive Chitosan Hydrogels
11.4 Chitosan Topical/Transdermal Films
11.5 Chitosan as Coating Material to Produce Lipid Capsules, Liposomes, Metallic and Magnetic Nanoparticles
11.6 Oral Beads Based on Chitosan for Controlled Delivery of Drugs
11.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References

Chapter 12: Eco-Friendly Polymers for Food Packaging

12.1 Introduction
12.2 Sources of Biopolymers
12.3 Properties of Biopolymer Packaging Films
12.4 Composite Films
12.5 Bionanocomposites
12.6 Methods for Film Processing
12.7 Applications of Biopolymers in Food Packaging
12.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References

Chapter 13: Influence of Surface Modification on the Thermal Stability and Percentage of Crystallinity of Natural Abaca Fiber

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Materials and Methods
13.3 Results and Discussion
13.4 Conclusions
References

Chapter 14: Influence of the Use of Natural Fibers in Composite Materials Assessed on a Life Cycle Perspective

14.1 Introduction
14.2 Composite Materials: An Overview
14.3 Methodology
14.4 Case Study: Bonnet Component
14.5 Life Cycle Stages
14.6 Results
14.7 Conclusion
References

Chapter 15: Plant Polysaccharides Blended Ionotropically Gelled Alginate Multiple Unit Systems for Sustained Drug Release

15.1 Introduction
15.2 Plant Polysaccharide in Sustained Release Drug Delivery
15.3 Alginates and Their Ionotropic Gelation
15.4 Various Plant Polysaccharides-Blended Ionotropically-Gelled Alginate Microparticles/Beads
15.5 Conclusion
References

Chapter 16: Vegetable Oil-Based Polymer Composites: Synthesis, Properties and Their Applications

16.1 Introduction
16.2 Vegetable Oils
16.3 Vegetable Oils Used for Polymers and Composites
16.4 Free Radical Polymerization of Vegetable Oils and Their Composites
16.5 Application Possibilities and Future Directions
References

Chapter 17: Applications of Chitosan Derivatives in Wastewater Treatment

17.1 Introduction
17.2 Chitin and Chitosan
17.3 Chitosan Derivatives in Wastewater Treatment
17.4 Adsorption of Heavy Metals on Chitosan Composites from Wastewater
17.5 Adsorption of Dyes on Chitosan Composites from Wastewater
17.6 Conclusion
References

Chapter 18: Novel Lignin-Based Materials as Products for Various Applications

18.1 Lignin – A General Overview
18.2 Lignin/Silica-Based Hybrid Materials
18.3 Combining of Lignin and Chitin
18.4 Lignin-Based Products as Functional Materials
References

Chapter 19: Biopolymers from Renewable Resources and Thermoplastic Starch Matrix as Polymer Units of Multi–Component Polymer Systems for Advanced Applications

19.1 Introduction
19.2 Thermoplastic Starch Matrix and its Application for Advanced Composite Materials
19.3 Biopolymers from Sustainable Renewable Sources
19.4 Thermoplastic Starch as Polymer Matrix and Biopolymers from Renewable Resources for Composite Materials
19.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References

Chapter 20: Chitosan Composites: Preparation and Applications in Removing Water Pollutants

20.1 Introduction to Chitosan
20.2 Chitosan Composites
20.3 Palm Oil Ash-Chitosan Composites
20.4 Perlite-Chitosan Composites
20.5 Polymer-Chitosan Composites
20.6 Sand-Chitosan Composites
20.7 Magnetic Nano-Adsorbents or Micro-Adsorbent
References

Chapter 21: Recent Advances in Biopolymer Composites for Environmental Issues

21.1 Introduction
21.2 Historical Background
21.3 Some Important Biopolymers
21.4 Biopolymer Composites
21.5 Biodegradability of Biopolymers: An Important Feature for Addressing Environmental Concerns
21.6 Environmental Aspects of Biopolymers and Biopolymer Composites
21.7 Future Prospects
Acknowledgement
References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Schematic representation of most important aminoacids linked to keratin backbone chain.
Figure 1.2 Molecular representation of α-keratin and β-keratin arrangements.
Figure 1.3 Different types of feathers and most significant parts of their hierarchical structure.
Figure 1.4 Basic hierarchical structure from hair or wool.
Figure 1.5 (a) Schematic representation of stress-strain curve for wool fibers (b) Stress–extension curves for wool: (i) in water at various temperatures and (ii) at different relative humidity values (Adapted from McKittrick et al., 2012. Copyright Springer).
Figure 1.6 Schematic representation of structural elements in horns (Tombolato et al., 2010. Copyright Elsevier).
Figure 1.7 Elastic modulus and maximum bending strength determined by three-point tests of ambient dried and rehydrated horn specimens in longitudinal (L) and transverse (T) directions. (Tombolato et al., 2010. Copyright Elsevier).
Figure 1.8 Scanning Electron Micrographs of four keratin materials applied as reinforcements in polymer composites: (a) Wool fiber (Rivera-Gomez et al., 2014. Creative Commons Attribution License); (b) Feather fiber; (c) Horn (Tombolato et al., 2010. Copyright Elsevier); (d) Human hair (Vazquez Villa et al., 2013. Creative Commons Attribution License).
Figure 1.9 Effect of density and void content on the flexural properties of quill–PP composites at 35% quill, holding temperature of 185 ºC, and holding time of 80 s (Huda & Yang, 2008. Copyright Elsevier).
Figure 1.10 SEM images for fractured surfaces of (a) Recycled-PP and Recycled-PP/Quill composites with (b) 5, (c) 10 and (d) 15 wt% of quill (Jimenez-Cervantes Amieva et al., 2014. Copyright SAGE).
Figure 1.11 Optical image of feather biofiber-PMMA composite (Martinez-Hernandez et al., 2007. Copyright Elsevier).
Figure 1.12 Effect of fiber content on tensile properties of Hair Fiber/PP composites: (a) stress-strain graphs of tensile test, (b) ultimate tensile strength vs. fiber content, (c) tensile modulus vs. fiber content and (d) breaking strain vs.fiber content (Reichl, 2009. Copyright Elsevier).
Figure 1.13 Scanning Electron Micrographs of: a) flight feather fiber and b) down feather fiber (Cheng et al., 2009. Copyright Elsevier).
Figure 1.14 Cumulative CO₂–C production from compost inoculum and bioplastic pots (bioplastic A: 100% PLA, bioplastic B: 5% PFF, 80% PLA, 15% starch, bioplastic C: 50% PFF, 25% urea, 25% glycerol). Values are means ± SE of three replicates (Ahn et al., 2011. Copyright Elsevier).
Figure 1.15 Storage modulus (E’) for composites (ChS-SB), with 5%–20% of feather biofiber included.
Figure 1.16 Scanning Electron Micrographs of chitosan-starch composites reinforced with feather fibers: (a-d) 5 wt% of short keratin fiber, (e-h) 5 wt% of long keratin fibers, (i-l) 5 wt% of ground quill.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Classification of biocomposites.
Figure 2.2 Tacticity in polymers in where: (a) Isotactic, (b) Syndiotactic and (c) Atactic, respectively.
Figure 2.3 LDPE structure.
Figure 2.4 PP structure.
Figure 2.5 Interactions presents in atoms.
Figure 2.6 Removals bond organic molecules.
Figure 2.7 Potential electrostatic map of (a) acetic acid, (b) PP and (c) LDPE respectively.
Figure 2.8 Potential electrostatic map of agave fiber respectively.
Figure 2.9 Geometry optimization of agave fiber with acetic acid, in where: oxygen, hydrogen, carbon atomos, respectively.
Figure 2.10 Geometry optimization of composite (agave fiber (acetic acid)/ LDPE/PP), in where: oxygen, hydrogen, carbon atomos, respectively.
Figure 2.11 Agave fiber deacetylation.
Figure 2.12 MESP of acetic acid in agave fiber.
Figure 2.13 MESP of agave fiber (acetic acid) /LDPE/PP.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Schematic representation for cross-linked hydrogels, obtained by condensation reaction.
Figure 3.2 Main applications of hydrogels.
Figure 3.3 Design of functional tissue equivalents.
Figure 3.4 Illustration depicting principal constituents of extracellular matrix (ECM).

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Stimuli responsive reversible-hydrogels.
Figure 4.2 Cryo-polymerization hydrogel technique.
Figure 4.3 Radical polymerization.
Figure 4.4 Chemical structures of vinyl monomers used as precursor of hydrogels.
Figure 4.5 Chemical structures of initiator TEMED.
Figure 4.6 Chemical structure of cross-linking agent, N,N-methylene-bis-acrylamide (BIS).
Figure 4.7 Swelling kinetic of PAAm 1M, PNIPAM 0.5 M hydrogels and co-polymer hydrogels.
Figure 4.8 Swelling kinetic of PNIPAM 0.5 M hydrogels co-polymers with 1%, 2% and 5% MAA.
Figure 4.9 Immobilization techniques for active components in polymer matrix.
Figure 4.10 Summary reactions of bioethanol process.
Figure 4.11 Structure of amylose.
Figure 4.12 Structure of amylopectin.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 The repeating unit of cellulose (drawn in ChemSketch).
Figure 5.2 Repeating disaccharide unit of HA with the permission of Jennie Leach (Leach & Schmidt, 2005).
Figure 5.3 Representation of uncross-linked, modified and cross-linked HA.
Figure 5.4 The chemical structures of a) α-PLL and b) ε-PLL (drawn by ChemSketch).

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 An illustration of drug delivery routes.
Figure 6.2 Effect of stimuli on hydrogel (revised from Kuckling et al., 2002; Wu et al., 2006).
Figure 6.3 Multiple drug delivery using hybrid polymers.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Glucose, Fischer projections (linear open chain) and Haworth (cyclic chain).
Figure 7.2 Links form hemiacetals and glucose monosaccharides.
Figure 7.3 Different structural representations of D-fructose.
Figure 7.4 Chair conformation for D-glucose and D-fructose.
Figure 7.5 Structures of sucrose (table sugar).
Figure 7.6 Representations of crystalline conformation sucrose (hydrogen atoms) (Casset F. et al., 1995).
Figure 7.7 Pectins structure: X can be H or CH3.
Figure 7.8 Behavior of terminals A and B atoms structure (Sturge et al., 1977).
Figure 7.9 Structure with same elements with charge difference (Sturge et al., 1977).
Figure 7.10 Structure with different elements with different charges (Skoog et al., 2001).
Figure 7.11 Technique for generating uniform sugar films.
Figure 7.12 Spectral absorption profile sugar film before and after exposure to UV light.
Figure 7.13 Master that contains twelve computer-generated sinusoidal gratings with a rate of 50 l/mm.
Figure 7.14 Temperature as a function of rubbing time.
Figure 7.15 (a) Replica obtained using a master twelve gratings, (b) microstructure registered in (a) with a magnification of 50 times.
Figure 7.16 Experimental scheme for quantifying the DE parameter.
Figure 7.17 DE of sucrose films (632 nm).
Figure 7.18 Physical appearance of sugar-dye films deposited on a glass surface.
Figure 7.19 Profile spectral absorption of artificial coloring tartrazine and sugar film mixed with tartrazine.
Figure 7.20 Spectral absorption profile of the mixture of tartrazine and erioglaucine (green) artificial colors and sugar film with this mixture.
Figure 7.21 Photomicrograph of diffraction gratings in a film dye-sucrose.
Figure 7.22 DE for sucrose film and sucrose + dyes.
Figure 7.23 Refractive index as a function of temperature for corn syrup Karo^® profile (Mejias-Brizuela et al., 2012).
Figure 7.24 Spectral absorption profile corn syrup film before and after exposure to UV light.
Figure 7.25 (a) Optical reconstruction of corn syrup film, (b) INAOE logo hologram, (c) written legend hologram (Mejias-Brizuela et al., 2012).
Figure 7.26 Holographic replica of a high frequency pattern recorded on corn syrup film.
Figure 7.27 DE of corn syrup.
Figure 7.28 Spectral absorption profile film PSV hydrophobic before and after exposure to UV light.
Figure 7.29 (a) Microphotograph of a diffraction grating recorded in PSV, (b) symmetrical diffraction pattern (a).
Figure 7.30 DE for hydrophobic films PSV.
Figure 7.31 Absorbance of blue dye mixed with PSV.
Figure 7.32 DE of PSV films mixed with blue dye.
Figure 7.33 (a) Microstructure Fourier hologram film pineapple. (b) Fourier hologram reconstruction (Toxqui et al., 2006).
Figure 7.34 (a) Grating pineapple film, (b) diffraction pattern (Toxqui et al., 2006).
Figure 7.35 DE behavior with baking time (Toxqui et al., 2006).
Figure 7.36 (a) Reference standard (b) optical reconstruction of the pattern recorded on milk film (c) Microscopic view of milk film (Olivera et al., 2006).
Figure 7.37 DE gratings milk (thickness de 30 µm) (Olivera et al., 2006).
Figure 7.38 DE grating milk (thickness 10 µm) (Olivera et al., 2006).

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Common structure of vegetable oils (R₁, R₂ and R₃ represent fatty acid chains).
Figure 8.2 A schematic diagram of epoxidation reaction.
Figure 8.3 Structures of lactic acid, lactide and PLA (Groot & Boren, 2010).
Figure 8.4 Chemical structure of EPO.
Figure 8.5 Proposed chemical interactions between PLA and epoxidized vegetable oils (Chieng et al., 2014a).
Figure 8.6 Elongation at break of PLA plasticized by EPO and ESO (Chieng et al., 2014a).
Figure 8.7 Dynamic storage modulus of neat PLA and PLA/ESO blends as a function of temperature (Ali et al., 2009).
Figure 8.8 Effect of ESO contents on melt strength at 160 ^oC for the PLA/ESO blends (Xu & Qu, 2009).
Figure 8.9 FTIR spectra of (a) SFO and (b) ESFO (Benaniba et al., 2007).
Figure 8.10 Elongation at break of PLA/ESFO blends (Wadhi & Weliam, 2014).
Figure 8.11 Thermograms of PLA and PLA/ESFO blend (Wadhi & Weliam, 2014).
Figure 8.12 Tensile test – (a) elongation at break, (b) tensile strength, and (c) tensile modulus of PLA/EJO blends.
Figure 8.13 SEM micrograph of PLA/EJO blend.
Figure 8.14 Shape recovery for the 2, 3, and 5 wt% MWCNTs reinforced ELO plasticized PLA nanocomposites (Alam et al., 2014).
Figure 8.15 TEM micrographs of (a) PLA/ESO/Na–MMT, (b) PLA/ESO/CDFA–MMT, (c) PLA/ESO/FA–MMT, and (d) PLA/ESO/FHA–MMT composites (Al-Mulla et al., 2011).
Figure 8.16 Stress–strain curves for PLA/EPO and PLA/EPO/xGnP nanocomposites (Chieng et al., 2012).
Figure 8.17 Illustration of disorientation mechanism of xGnP at (a) 0.1 wt%, (b) 0.3 wt%, and (c) > 0.5 wt% (Chieng et al., 2012).
Figure 8.18 (a) SEM and (b) TEM micrographs of PLA/EPO/0.3 wt% xGnP nanocomposite (Chieng et al., 2014b).

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 The relation between residual metal ion content and p^H in the metal-copolymer complex solution (Reaction conditions: PDMAEACSG, 2 g; initial concentration of Cu, 203 ppm; Cd, 194 ppm; Hg, 208 ppm; Pb, 201 ppm; total volume, 100 ml; N%, 2.5; time, 2 hours; temperature, 20 °C ± 1 °C)
Figure 9.2 Effect of varying the extent of grafting (expressed as N%) on the residual metal ion in the metal-copolymer complex solution (Reaction conditions: PDMAEACSG, 2 g; initial concentration of Cu, 203 ppm; Cd, 194 ppm; Hg, 208 ppm; Pb, 201 ppm; total volume, 100 ml; p^H, 8; time, 2 hours; temperature, 20 °C ± 1 °C)
Figure 9.3 Effect of dose of PDMAEACSG on the residual metal ions concentration (ppm) removal from metal-copolymer complex solution (Reaction conditions: Initial concentration of Cu, 203 ppm; Cd, 194 ppm; Hg, 208 ppm; Pb, 201 ppm; total volume, 100 ml; N%, 2.5; p^H, 8; time, 2 hours; temperature, 20 °C ± 1 °C)
Figure 9.4 Effect of treatment time on the residual metal ions removal using PDMAEACSG (Reaction conditions: PDMAEACSG, 2 g; initial concentration of Cu, 203 ppm; Cd, 194 ppm; Hg, 208 ppm; Pb, 201 ppm; total volume, 100 ml; N%, 2.5; p^H, 8; time, 2 hours; temperature, 20 °C ± 1 °C)
Figure 9.5 Effect of agitation speed on the residual metal ions removal using PDMAEACSG (Reaction conditions: PDMAEACSG, 2 g; initial concentration of Cu, 203 ppm; Cd, 194 ppm; Hg, 208 ppm; Pb, 201 ppm; total volume, 100 ml; N%, 2.5; p^H, 8; time, 2 hours; temperature, 20 °C ± 1 °C)
Figure 9.6 Effect of temperature on metal ion adsorption (Reaction conditions: Initial concentration of Cu, 203 ppm; Cd, 194 ppm; Hg, 208 ppm; Pb, 201 ppm; total volume, 100 ml; N%, 2.5; p^H, 8; time, 2 hours; temperature, 20 to 60 °C ± 1 °C).
Figure 9.7 The difference between original unrecovered PDMAEACSG and recovered one of PDMAEACSG towards Cu ions removal from the metal-copolymer complex solution.
Figure 9.8 Relation between extent of grafting (expressed as N%) and sorption capacity of dye adsorbed (R%) on PDMAEACSG.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Obtaining chitosan from chitin.
Figure 10.2 Chitosan cross-linking by glutaraldehyde.
Figure 10.3 Genipin structure where: ○ oxygen, ○ hydrogen, ○ carbon atoms, respectively.
Figure 10.4 Chitosan cross-linking with genipin, in where: ○ oxygen, ○ hydrogen, ○ carbon, ○ nitrogen atoms, respectively.
Figure 10.5 Mechanism of action of the antifungals.
Figure 10.6 Fluconazole structure where: ○ oxygen, ○ nitrogen, ○ hydrogen, ○ carbon, and ○ fluor atoms, respectively.
Figure 10.7 Voriconazole structure where: ○oxygen, ○ nitrogen, ○ hydrogen, ○ carbon, and ○ fluor atoms, respectively.
Figure 10.8 Ketoconazole structure where: ○ oxygen, ○ nitrogen, ○ hydrogen, ○ carbon, and ○ chloride atoms, respectively.
Figure 10.9 Geometry optimization structure: (a) Fluconazole, (b) Voriconazole and (c) Ketoconazole, respectively. In where: ○ oxygen, ○ nitrogen, ○ hydrogen, ○ carbon, and ○ fluor, and ○ chloride atoms, respectively.
Figure 10.10 Geometry optimization structure of hydrogel (chitosan/genipin), where: ○ oxygen, ○ nitrogen, ○ hydrogen, ○ carbon, respectively.
Figure 10.11 MESP of: (a) Fluconazole, (b) Voriconazole and (c) Ketoconazole, respectively.
Figure 10.12 MESP of hydrogel (chitosan/genipin).
Figure 10.13 Geometry optimization of hydrogel (chitosan/genipin) with Fluconazole, where: ○ oxygen, ○ nitrogen, ○ hydrogen, ○ carbon, and ○ fluor, respectively.
Figure 10.14 Geometry optimization of hydrogel (chitosan/genipin) with Voriconazole, where: ○ oxygen, ○ nitrogen, ○ hydrogen, ○ carbon, ○ fluor, respectively.
Figure 10.15 Geometry optimization of hydrogel (chitosan/genipin) with Ketoconazole, where: ○ oxygen, ○ nitrogen, ○ hydrogen, ○ carbon, ○ chloride respectively.
Figure 10.16 MESP of hydrogel (chitosan/genipin) with fluconazole.
Figure 10.17 MESP of hydrogel (chitosan/genipin) with ketoconazole.
Figure 10.18 MESP of hydrogel (chitosan/genipin) with voriconazole.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Electron micrographs obtained by SEM for the morphological and size analysis of chitosan nanoparticles (4000 × and 23,000 ×, respectively). Reprinted from Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 75, Matos B.N., Reis T.A., Gratieri T., Gelfuso G.M., Chitosan nanoparticles for targeting and sustaining minoxidil sulphate delivery to hair follicles, 225–229, Copyright (2015), with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 11.2 Schematic representation of chitosan hydrogel formed from physical aggregation. (a) Networks of chitosan formed with ionic molecules, polyelectrolyte polymer and neutral polymers. (b) Thermoreversible networks of chitosan graft copolymer resulting semi solid gel at body temperature, i.e., when temperature is higher than the LCST, and liquid below room temperature, i.e., when temperature is lower than the LCST. LCST: lower critical solution temperature. Reprinted from Adv. Drug Del. Rev., 62/1, Bhattarai, N., Gunn, J., Zhang, M., Chitosan-based hydrogels for controlled, localized drug delivery, 83–99, Copyright (2010), with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 11.3 Surface morphology of (a) alginate microparticles, (b) chitosan coated alginate microparticle and (c) and N,O-carboxymethyl chitosan coated alginate microparticles. (scale bar = 10 μm). Reprinted from Materials Science and Engineering: C, 33/5, Mi, Y., Su, R., Fan, D.D., Zhu, X.L., Zhang, W.N., Preparation of N,O-carboxymethyl chitosan coated alginate microcapsules and their application to Bifidobacterium longum BIOMA 5920, 3047–3053, Copyright (2013), with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 11.4 Preparation of chitosan beads following the ionotropic gelation method.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Sources of biopolymers.
Figure 12.2 Structure of amylase and amylopectin.
Figure 12.3 Structure of cellulose.
Figure 12.4 Structure of gaur gum.
Figure 12.5 Structure of locust bean gum.
Figure 12.6 Structure of gum arabic.
Figure 12.7 Structure of pectin.
Figure 12.8 Structure of chitin and chitosan.
Figure 12.9 Structure of agar.
Figure 12.10 Structure of alginate.
Figure 12.11 Chemical structure of (a) iota (b) kappa carageenan.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 IR spectra of untreated, alkali treated (NaOH) and acrylic acid (AA) treated abaca fiber.
Figure 13.2 IR spectra of permanganate treated abaca fiber.
Figure 13.3 Thermo gram of untreated abaca fiber.
Figure 13.4 Thermo gram of alkali treated abaca fiber.
Figure 13.5 Thermo gram of acrylated abaca fiber.
Figure 13.6 Thermo gram of acetylated (without catalyst) abaca fiber.
Figure 13.7 Thermo gram of acetylated with catalyst abaca fiber.
Figure 13.8 Thermo gram of benzoylated abaca fiber.
Figure 13.9 Thermo gram of permanganate treated abaca fiber.
Figure 13.10 Diffractogram of untreated abaca fiber.
Figure 13.11 Diffractogram of alkali treated abaca fiber.
Figure 13.12 Diffractogram acrylated of abaca fiber.
Figure 13.13 Diffractogram of acetylated without catalyst abaca fiber.
Figure 13.14 Diffractogram of acetylated with catalyst abaca fiber.
Figure 13.15 Diffractogram of benzoylated abaca fiber.
Figure 13.16 Diffractogram of permanganate treated abaca fiber.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Yearly world production per fiber. Adapted from Zsiros, (2010).
Figure 14.2 Methodology.
Figure 14.3 Technical Evaluation.
Figure 14.4 Buggy bonnet.
Figure 14.5 Life cycle cost and environmental impact evaluation.
Figure 14.6 Boundary conditions and loading of the bonnet, where the U_i is the displacement and Rot_i is the rotational displacement in the i orientation (i = x, y, z).
Figure 14.7 Composite stacking sequence.
Figure 14.8 Stresses results in the bottom layer.
Figure 14.9 Stress along the thickness – ramie.
Figure 14.10 Comparative between all the bonnet candidates.
Figure 14.11 Percentile values per constituent relative to baseline GF fabric.
Figure 14.12 Environmental impacts in the three damage categories.
Figure 14.13 The best material for a given application, based on the weight of each dimension.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Molecular structure of alginate.
Figure 15.2 SEM images of (a) placebo locust bean gum–alginate mucoadhesive beads, (b) ionotropically-gelled aceclofenac-loaded locust bean gum–blended alginate mucoadhesive beads and (c) surface of ionotropically-gelled aceclofenac-loaded locust bean gum–blended alginate mucoadhesive beads (Prajapati et al., 2014) Copyright © 2014 with permission from Elsevier Ltd.
Figure 15.3 Comparative in vitro dissolution profile of ionotropically-gelled aceclofenac-loaded locust bean gum–blended alginate mucoadhesive beads of all batches (Prajapati et al., 2014) Copyright © 2014 with permission from Elsevier Ltd.
Figure 15.4 The in vitro drug release from aceclofenac-loaded locust bean gum–blended alginate microspheres in phosphate buffer of pH 6.8 of all formulations (Jana et al., 2015b) Copyright © 2015 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 15.5 SEM images of optimized ionotropically-gelled glibenclamide-loaded gum arabic-blended alginate beads (Nayak et al., 2012) Copyright © 2012, with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 15.6 In vitro drug release from various ionotropically-gelled glibenclamide-loaded gum arabic-blended alginate beads (Nayak et al., 2012) Copyright © 2012, with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 15.7 SEM image of surface morphology of optimized ionotropically-gelled diclofenac sodium-loaded tamarind seed polysaccharide-blended alginate beads (Nayak & Pal, 2011) Copyright © 2011 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 15.8 In vitro drug release from ionotropically-gelled diclofenac sodium-loaded tamarind seed polysaccharide-blended alginate beads (Nayak & Pal, 2011) Copyright © 2011 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 15.9 SEM image of surface morphology of optimized ionotropically-gelled metformin HCl-loaded tamarind seed polysaccharide-blended alginate beads (Nayak et al., 2016) Copyright © 2015 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 15.10 In vitro drug release from optimized ionotropically-gelled metformin HCl-loaded tamarind seed polysaccharide-blended alginate beads (Nayak et al., 2016) Copyright © 2015 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 15.11 SEM image of surface morphology of optimized ionotropically-gelled diclofenac sodium loaded okra gum-blended alginate beads (Sinha et al., 2015a) Copyright © 2015 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 15.12 In vitro drug release from ionotropically-gelled diclofenac sodium-loaded okra gum blended alginate beads (Sinha et al., 2015a) Copyright © 2015 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 15.13 SEM image of ionotropically-gelled glibenclamide-loaded okra gum-blended alginate beads (Sinha et al., 2015b) Copyright © 2014 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 15.14 In vitro drug release from ionotropically-gelled glibenclamide-loaded okra gum-blended alginate beads (Sinha et al., 2015b) Copyright © 2014 with permission from Elsevier B.V
Figure 15.15 SEM image of surface morphology of optimized ionotropically-gelled metformin HCl-loaded fenugreek seed mucilage-blended alginate beads (Nayak et al., 2013e) Copyright © 2012 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 15.16 In vitro drug release from ionotropically-gelled metformin HCl-loaded fenugreek seed mucilage-blended alginate beads (Nayak et al., 2013e) Copyright © 2012 with permission from Elsevier B.V

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 The triglyceride structure.
Figure 16.2 The structures of important fatty acids [reproduced with permission from Xia & Larock, 2010).
Figure 16.3 Composition of fatty acids in some commonly used vegetable oils (Khot et al., 2001; Seniha Güner et al., 2006; Xia & Larock, 2010; Wang, 2014; Samarth & Mahanwar, 2015).
Figure 16.4 Oxidative drying of oils in air [reproduced with permission from Xia & Larock, 2010].
Figure 16.5 (a) TEM micrograph of ESO/clay nanocomposites (b) Flexible ESO-clay nanocomposite [reproduced with permission from Uyama et al., 2003].
Figure 16.6 A schematic diagram showing the reaction mechanism of preparing ES-based paper composites [reproduced with permission from Miao et al., 2015].
Figure 16.7 SEM images of the paper and the PC-40% (a) The cross-section of PC-40% (b) The PESO surface on PC-40% (c) The back side of PC-40% (d) The surface of the paper (control) [reproduced with permission from Miao et al., 2015].
Figure 16.8 Schematic diagram showing the combination of PESO with paper [reproduced with permission from Miao et al., 2015].
Figure 16.9 Structures of silane coupling agents used for the treatment of basat fiber a) (3-aminopropyl) trimethoxy silane b) [3-(2-aminoethylamino)propyl]-trimethoxy silane c) trimethoxy[3-(7-oxabicyclo[4.1.0]-hept-3-yl]ethyl]silane d) (3glycidyloxypropyl) trimethoxysilane [reproduced with permission from Samper et al., 2015b].
Figure 16.10 Schematic representation of coupling mechanism of aminosilane with the oxirane rings in the bio-based epoxy resin [reproduced with permission from Samper et al., 2015b].
Figure 16.11 Schematic diagram showing the coupling mechanism of glycidyl silane with bio-epoxy resin [reproduced with permission from Samper et al., 2015b].
Figure 16.12 Flow diagram showing the preparation of a) nanocomposite processing b) biocomposite fabrication [reproduced with permission from Haq et al., 2014].
Figure 16.13 a) Ultimate tensile strength and b) Izod impact strength of epoxidized methyl linseedate (EML)-based biocomposites [reproduced with permission from Haq et al., 2014].
Figure 16.14 Chemical reaction of castor oil with maleic anhydride to produce MACO or (2) a dimer [reproduced with permission from Mistri et al., 2011].
Figure 16.15 Flexural strength, flexural modulus and %breaking strain of MACO/jute and the reference UPE/jute composites [reproduced with permission from Mistri et al., 2011].
Figure 16.16 Izod impact strength of MACO/jute and the reference UPE/jute composites [reproduced with permission from Mistri et al., 2011].
Figure 16.17 Chemical reaction between MACO, UPE and styrene (cross-linking sites indicated by arrow) [reproduced with permission from Ghorui et al., 2011].
Figure 16.18 Impact strength of the fly ash reinforced UPE/MACO composites [reproduced with permission from Ghorui et al., 2011].
Figure 16.19 DMA curves of UPE/MACO/FA composites a) storage modulus b) loss modulus c) damping parameter [reproduced with permission from Ghorui et al., 2011].
Figure 16.20 Probable chemical reaction between MACO and epoxy using diethylene triamine [reproduced with permission from Ray et al., 2012].
Figure 16.21 DMA curves of epoxy/MACO/fly ash composites [reproduced with permission from Ray et al., 2012].
Figure 16.22 The cationic or thermal copolymerization of triglyceride oils with styrene (ST) and DVB [reproduced with permission from Lu & Larock, 2007a].

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 Structures of chitin and chitosan.
Figure 17.2 General method of chitosan extraction from prawn shell.
Figure 17.3 Examples of chemical derivatization of chitosan (Crini, 2005).
Figure 17.4 Adsorption of lead on Triethylene-Tetramine Grafted Magnetic Chitosan (Kuang, Wang, Liu & Wu, 2013).
Figure 17.5 Schematic representation of RB2 adsorption onto DETA-CMCHS.
Figure 17.6 Adsorption efficiency of C. I. Acid Red on the chitosan-Fe(III) complex and magnetic chitosan-Fe(III) complex (Shen, Shen, Wen, Wang & Liu, 2011).

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 Total number of citations related with lignin (scopus.com).
Figure 18.2 Structure of the cell wall of wood, based on Sticklen, 2008.
Figure 18.3 Lignin precursors, often called phenylpropanoid units: (a) p-coumaryl alcohol, (b) coniferyl alcohol, (c) sinapyl alcohol (Donaldson, 2001; Meister, 2002; Ralph et al., 2004).
Figure 18.4 Practical uses of lignin in different branches of science and industry.
Figure 18.5 The most important properties of silica-lignin hybrid materials.
Figure 18.6 Application paths of SiO₂-lignin hybrid systems.
Figure 18.7 The most important properties of materials based on chitin and lignin.
Figure 18.8 Application possibilities of chitin-lignin materials.

Chapter 19

Figure 19.1 Chemical structure of chitin.
Figure 19.2 Chemical structure of cellulose.
Figure 19.3 Chemical structure of starch components: amylose (a), and amylopectin (b).
Figure 19.4 FTIR spectra recorded for thermoplastic starch composite films: A1 sample (a); A2 sample (b); A3 sample (c); B1 sample (d); B2 sample (e); B3 sample (f); C1 sample (g); C2 sample (h); C3 sample (i). (Continued)
Figure 19.5 Water sorption measurements depending on the exposure time to humid environment for starch composite films: A samples (a); B samples (b); C samples (c).
Figure 19.6 Optical properties recorded for starch composite films: A samples (a); B samples (b); C samples (c).
Figure 19.7 Particle size distribution analysis for starch polymer matrix and biopolymers used as fillers in composite films: (a) starch; (b) chitin; (c) softwood pulp; (d) wheat straw.

Chapter 20

Figure 20.1 Structure of Chitosan.
Figure 20.2 Structure of Chitin.
Figure 20.3 N-Carboxymethyl chitosan (NCC).
Figure 20.4 The preparation of chitosan hydroxyl azacrown ether through reacting hydroxyl azacrown ether with epoxy-activated chitosan.
Figure 20.5 The product of the reaction between β-cyclodextrin reacting with p-toluene sulfonyl chloride grafted on chitosan.
Figure 20.6 The mechanism suggested for the adsorption and removal of Methylene Blue (MB) from aqueous solution.
Figure 20.7 A probable pathway for the preparation of poly(methacrylic acid)-grafted chitosan/bentonite composite.
Figure 20.8 Malachite green (a) and methyl violet dyes (b).
Figure 20.9 The mechanism of interaction of interaction between Cr⁶⁺ and the sorbent.
Figure 20.10 The mechanism for cross-linking of chitosan with glutaraldehyde.
Figure 20.11 The proposed structure for the oxalic acid cross-linking activated alumina/chitosan biocomposites.
Figure 20.12 Mechanism of Cr⁶⁺ species by the chitin and chitosan composites with nano-hydroxyapatite.
Figure 20.13 Structure of Acid Violet 48.
Figure 20.14 The cross-linking of chitosan and polyurethane by glutaraldehyde.
Figure 20.15 The electro-spinning system.
Figure 20.16 Adsorption of As³⁺ species on the Ce-Chit/PVA.
Figure 20.17 The chemical structure of the chitosan-grafted-poly(methylmethacrylate).
Figure 20.18 Structures of (a) Procion Yellow MX 8G; (b) Remazol Brilliant Violet 5R; (c) Reactive Blue 81.
Figure 20.19 The structure of chitosan grafted poly(alkyl methacrylate)s.
Figure 20.20 Chemical structure of doxorubicin.
Figure 2.21 Illustration of the immobilization of alkyl bromide-containing initiator on the surface of a cross-linked chitosan (CCS) microsphere through a triethylamine-catalyzed condensation reaction and surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization of sodium methacrylate from the CCS-Br surface to produce poly(methacrylic acid)-grafted cross-linked chitosan.
Figure 20.22 The mechanism suggested for the adsorption of metal ions on the imprinted chitosan resin.
Figure 20.23 The illustration of coating a, imprinting b, desorbing c and application of the sorbent for removal d (mycelium (1), chitosan coat (2), metal ion (3), specific space of metal ion (4)).
Figure 20.24 The structure of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS).
Figure 20.25 Structures of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (a); perfluorooctanoic acid (b); sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate (c); pentachlorophenate (d).
Figure 20.26 Structure of Congo Red.
Figure 20.27 Illustration of the preparation of the ion-imprinted cross-linked electro-spun chitosan nanofiber mats.
Figure 20.28 The suggested mechanism for the adsorption of F^– ions on the magnetic chitosan sorbent.
Figure 20.29 The schematics of the photochemical reaction device.
Figure 20.30 An illustration of the structure of chitosan coated magnetic Fe₃O₄
Figure 20.31 Structure of Methyl Orange.
Figure 20.32 The mechanism of interaction between the Cr⁶⁺ species with γ-Fe₂O₃–chitosan beads.
Figure 20.33 Illustration of the steps of synthesis of the sorbent.
Figure 20.34 Humic acid.
Figure 20.35 Organic polycyclic compounds Acridine orange, Congo red, Crystal violet, Neutral red, and Safranin O.
Figure 20.36 Structure of crocein orange G (AO12) and acid green 25 (AG25).
Figure 20.37 The spraying co-precipitation setup.
Figure 20.38 α-ketoglutaric acid.
Figure 20.39 Preparation of the modified magnetic chitosan resins.
Figure 20.40 Illustration of the steps of the synthesis of the sorbent chitosan-coated octadecyl-functionalized magnetite nanoparticles and its structure.
Figure 20.41 Formation of thiourea-chitosan.
Figure 20.42 Structure of AGS.
Figure 20.43 Preparation of magnetic chitosan nanoparticles grafted with β-cyclodextrin.
Figure 20.44 Preparation of magnetic chitosan-poly(m-phenylenediamine).
Figure 20.45 Preparation of magnetic-chitosan/poly(vinyl alcohol)/ Carboxylated cellulose nanofibrils (m-CS/PVA/CCNFs) hydrogels.
Figure 20.46 The structure and adsorption mechanism of dithizone-modified chitosan magnetic particles.
Figure 20.47 The mechanism proposed for the adsorption of methylene blue (MB) and malachite green (MG) by the sorbent.
Figure 20.48 The synthesis of γ-AlOOH/chitosan magnetic nanoparticles.

Chapter 21

Figure 21.1 Chemical structures of few important biopolymers.
Figure 21.2 Synthesis route, morphology and biological structure of bacterial cellulose.
Figure 21.3 Synthesis of biopolymers, PLA as an example.
Figure 21.4 Applications of biopolymer and biopolymer composites in resolving environmental issues.

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Properties of some natural fibers commonly used in polymeric composite materials. (Adapted from Netravali & Chaba, 2003)
Table 1.2 Mechanical properties in PMMA-keratin biofiber composites.
Table 1.3 Composition by weight of the investigated materials and tensile data for polypropylene composites. (Adapted from Bertini et al., 2013)

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Principal chemical composition of various lignocellulosic materials.
Table 2.2 Fiber composition and agave bagasse.
Table 2.3 Clasification of polymers.
Table 2.4 LDPE properties.
Table 2.5 PP properties.
Table 2.6 Structural parameters of acetic acid, LDPE, PP and agave fiber.
Table 2.7 FTIR experimental values of acetic acid.
Table 2.8 FTIR experimental values of PP.
Table 2.9 FTIR experimental values of LDPE.
Table 2.10 FTIR experimental values of agave fiber.
Table 2.11 Structural properties of different materials.
Table 2.12 Acetic acid effects in structural parameters of agave fiber.
Table 2.13 Structural parameters of agave fiber (acetic acid)/LDPE/PP.
Table 2.14 FTIR of agave fiber/composite.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Biofuels, their feedstock and technological process.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Collagen groups and types, molecular structure and their functions. (Hulmes 2008; Ramshaw, Werkmeister, and Dumsday 2014)

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Carbohydrates classification according to the chemical structure.
Table 7.2 Maximum solubility of sucrose.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Properties of some commonly used plasticizers (Rahman & Brazel, 2004).
Table 8.2 Common fatty acids present in vegetable oils.
Table 8.3 Fatty acid compositions of the most common vegetable oils.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Different characteristics of salts of heavy metals.
Table 9.2 Preparation of poly (DMAEA)-cross-linked starch gel graft copolymer having different graft yields (expressed as N %) as well as their main characteristics.
Table 9.3 Thermodynamic parameters for the adsorption of metal ions on prepared PDMAEACSG adsorbent.
Table 9.4 Isotherm model constants and correlation coefficients for adsorption of metal ions from aqueous solution using PDMAEACSG adsorbents.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Solubility of several solvents.
Table 10.2 Chitin and chitosan properties.
Table 10.3 Antifungals according to the site of antifungal action.
Table 10.4 Antifungals according to the structure.
Table 10.5 Fluconazole properties.
Table 10.6 Infrared regions.
Table 10.7 ΔG of antifungals.
Table 10.8 Structural parameters of fluconazole.
Table 10.9 Structural parameters of voriconazole.
Table 10.10 Structural parameters of ketoconazole.
Table 10.11 FTIR results about hydrogel (chitosan cross-linking with genipin).
Table 10.12 Thermodynamics parameters of hydrogels with 3 different antifungals.
Table 10.13 Structural parameters of fluconazole.
Table 10.14 Structural parameters of voriconazole.
Table 10.15 Structural parameters of ketoconazole.
Table 10.16 FTIR results of hydrogel/fluconazole.
Table 10.17 FTIR results of hydrogel/voriconazole.
Table 10.18 FTIR results of hydrogel/ketoconazole.
Table 10.19 Molecular orbitals about fluconazole.
Table 10.20 Molecular orbitals about ketoconazole.
Table 10.21 Molecular orbitals about voriconazole.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Commercially used synthetic packaging films.
Table 12.2 Transmission rates of various biopolymer packaging films (adapted from Niaounakis, 2014).
Table 12.3 Tensile strength and percent elongation of some biopolymers (Adapted from Van de Velde & Kiekens, 2001).
Table 12.4 Compostability of biobased and composite materials.
Table 12.5 General properties of biopolymer films.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 FTIR peaks position of abaca fibers.
Table 13.2 Decomposition temperatures of untreated and chemically treated fibers abaca fibers.
Table 13.3 Decomposition temperatures of some natural fibers.
Table 13.4 The observed and calculated parameters from the X-ray diffracto grams.

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Resin properties.
Table 14.2 Buggy hood, fiber-reinforced properties.
Table 14.3 Buggy hood, mechanical properties per fiber used in FEA pre-processing.
Table 14.4 Laminate GF properties on global coordinate system (X, Y).
Table 14.5 Composite comparative per constituent (type of fiber).
Table 14.6 Comparative study of deformation and FoS per constituent (type of fiber).
Table 14.7 Weight of bonnet per constituent (type of fiber).
Table 14.8 Raw materials.
Table 14.9 Quantity of fabric.
Table 14.10 Material supplier.
Table 14.11 RTM cycle times.
Table 14.12 Fuel consumption per material.
Table 14.13 Total costs for each material (600 units/year).
Table 14.14 Total environmental impacts (600 units/year).
Table 14.15 Bonnet component, LCE.
Table 14.16 Bonnet component, dimensionless values.

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Various plant polysaccharides utilized in the formulation of different sustained release dosage forms for oral use.
Table 15.2 Some examples of ionotropically-gelled alginate-based microparticles/beads for sustained drug release composed of alginate and conventional natural polymer-blends.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Physico-chemical properties of commonly used vegetable oils (Rescoria et al., 1936; Magne & Skau, 1945; Karleskind & Wolff, 1992; Lang et al., 1992; Wang, 2014; Samarth & Mahanwar, 2015; Thomas et al., 2015).
Table 16.2 Dynamic mechanical properties (DMA) of vegetable oil triglyceride-based nanocomposites (% of improvement within parentheses) [reproduced with permission from Lu et al., 2004].

Chapter 17

Table 17.1 Adsorption capacities of chitosan composites for the removal of heavy metals from waste water.
Table 17.2 Adsorption capacities of chitosan composites for the removal of dyes from waste water.

Chapter 18

Table 18.1 Content of biopolymers constituting the cell wall of wood (Dey & Harborne, 1997; Dinwoodie, 1989; Heitner et al., 2010).
Table 18.2 Percentage contents of lignin precursors depending on type of plant material, based on (Ek et al., 2009; Lucia & Rojas, 2009).

Chapter 19

Table 19.1 Code names for thermoplastic starch based composite formulations.
Table 19.2 Assignment of the FTIR absorption bands for composites comprising starch matrix and different fillers (Liu et al., 2005; Pandey, 1999; Van Soest et al., 1995).

Chapter 21

Table 21.1 Historical development of various biodegradable and non-degradable polymers. (Reproduced with permission from Wiley)

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Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials

Edited by Vijay Kumar Thakur, Manju Kumari Thakur and Michael R. Kessler

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ISBN: 978-1-119-22362-7

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Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials

Volume 6

Polymeric Composites

Edited by

Vijay Kumar Thakur

Manju Kumari Thakur

Michael R. Kessler