Contents
Cover
Title page
Copyright page
Dedication
Preface
Chapter 1: Chitosan-Based Biosorbents: Modifications and Application for Sequestration of PPCPs and Metals for Water Remediation
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Modification of Chitosan
1.3 Interactions of Chitosan-Based MIP Sorbents with Pollutants (Organic & Inorganic)
1.4 Applications of Chitosan
1.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Oil Spill Cleanup by Textiles
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Causes of Oil Spilling
2.3 Problems Faced Due to Oil Spilling
2.4 Oil Sorption Phenomenon
2.5 Removal of Oil Spill
2.6 Recent Developments for Effective Water Cleaning
2.7 Test Methods for Evaluation of Oil Sorbents
2.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 3: Pyridine and Bipyridine End-Functionalized Polylactide: Synthesis and Catalytic Applications
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Macroligand Synthesis
3.3 Macroligand Coordination to Palladium
3.4 Pd-Nanoparticles Supported onto End-Functionalized Stereocomplexes
3.5 Catalytic Applications
3.6 Outlook
References
Chapter 4: Functional Separation Membranes from Chitin and Chitosan Derivatives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Preparation of Separation Membrane from Chitin, Chitosan, and Their Derivatives
4.3 Functional Separation Membranes from Chitin, Chitosan, and Their Derivatives
4.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5: Acrylated Epoxidized Flaxseed Oil Bio-Resin and Its Biocomposites
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Experimental
5.3 Results and Discussion
5.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 6: Encapsulation of Inorganic Renewable Nanofiller
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Synthesis of Polymer-Encapsulated Silica Nanoparticles
6.3 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 7: Chitosan Coating on Textile Fibers for Functional Properties
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Antimicrobial Coating of Textiles by Chitosan UV Curing
7.3 Chitosan Coating of Wool for Antifelting Properties
7.4 Chitosan Coating on Textile Fibers to Increasing Uptake of Ionic Dyes in Dyeing
7.5 Chitosan Coating on Cotton Filter for Removal of Dyes and Metal Ions from Wastewaters
7.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 8: Surface Functionalization of Cellulose Whiskers for Nonpolar Composites Applications
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Experimental
8.3 Results and Discussion
8.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Impact of Chemical Treatment and the Manufacturing Process on Mechanical, Thermal, and Rheological Properties of Natural Fibers-Based Composites
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Physicochemical Characteristics of Natural Fibers
9.3 Problematic
9.4 Natural Fibers Treatments
9.5 Composites Manufacturing
9.6 Composites Properties
9.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Biopolymers Modification and Their Utilization in Biomimetic Composites for Osteochondral Tissue Engineering
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Failure, Defect, and Design: Role of Composites
10.3 Cell-ECM Composite Hierarchy in Bone-Cartilage Interface
10.4 Polymers for Osteochondral Tissue Engineering
10.5 Polymer Modification for Osteochondral Tissue Engineering
10.6 Composite Scaffolds for Osteochondral Tissue Engineering
10.7 Osteochondral Composite Scaffolds: Clinical Status
10.8 Current Challenges and Future Direction
References
Chapter 11: Fibers from Natural Resources
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Materials and Methods
11.3 Fiber Characteristics
11.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 12: Strategies to Improve the Functionality of Starch-Based Films
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Starch: Sources and Main Uses
12.3 Strategies to Improve the Functionality of Biopolymer-Based Films
12.4 Bioactive Compounds with Antimicrobial Activity
12.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: The Effect of Gamma Radiation on Biodegradability of Natural Fiber/PP-HMSPP Foams: A Study of Thermal Stability and Biodegradability
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Materials and Methods
13.3 Results and Discussion
13.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 14: Surface Functionalization Through Vapor-Phase-Assisted Surface Polymerization (VASP) on Natural Materials from Agricultural By-Products
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Surface Modification by Steam Treatment
14.3 Surface Modification by Compatibilizer
14.4 Vapor-Phase-Assisted Surface Polymerization
14.5 Vapor-Phase-Assisted Surface Modification of Biomass Fillers
14.6 Vapor-Phase Chemical Modification of Biomass Fillers
14.7 Green Composites Through VASP Process
14.8 Conclusions and Outlook
References
Chapter 15: Okra Bast Fiber as Potential Reinforcement Element of Biocomposites: Can It Be the Flax of the Future?
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Cultivation and Harvesting of Okra Plant
15.3 Extraction of Bast Fibers from Okra Plant
15.4 Composition, Morphology, and Properties of Okra Bast Fiber
15.5 Modification Methods of Okra Bast fiber
15.6 Potential Application Areas of Okra Bast Fiber-Reinforced Biocomposites
15.7 Conclusions and Future Work
References
Chapter 16: Silane Coupling Agents Used in Natural Fiber/Plastic Composites
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Hydrolysis of Silanes
16.3 Interaction with Natural Fibers
16.4 Interaction with Plastics
16.5 Summary
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 17: Composites of Olefin Polymer/Natural Fibers: The Surface Modifications on Natural Fibers
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Vegetable Fiber
17.3 Chemical Treatments
17.4 Mercerization
17.5 Acetylation Process: Way to Insert Fibers on Hydrophilic Polymers
17.6 Acetylation Treatment
17.7 Catalyst for Acetylation Process
17.7 Methods for Determination Acetylation
17.8 Weight Percentage Gain
17.9 Fourier Transformer Infrared Spectroscopy
17.10 Chemical Modification of Fiber through the Reaction with Polymer-Modified Olefin
17.11 Other Treatments
17.12 Maximum Stress in Tension
17.13 Elongation at Break
17.14 Elastic Modulus
17.15 Impact Resistance
References
Chapter 18: Surface Functionalization of Biomaterials
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Biomaterials
18.3 Surface Modification Technologies
18.4 Surface Functionalization of Metallic Biomaterials: Selected Examples
18.5 Surface Functionalization of Polymeric Biomaterials: Selected Examples
18.6 Conclusions and Future Directions
References
Chapter 19: Thermal and Mechanical Behaviors of Biorenewable Fibers-Based Polymer Composites
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Classification of Natural Fibers
19.3 Structure of Biofiber
19.4 Surface Treatment of Natural Fibers
19.5 Hemp Fiber Composites
19.6 Bamboo Fiber Composites
19.7 Banana Fiber Composites
19.8 Kenaf Fiber Composites
19.9 Coir Fiber Composites
19.10 Jute Fiber Composites
19.11 Flax Fiber Composites
19.12 Date Palm Fibers Composites
19.13 Rice Straw Fiber Composites
19.14 Agava Fibers Composites
19.15 Sisal Fibers Composites
19.16 Pineapple Leaf Fiber Composites
19.17 Basalt Fiber Composites
19.18
Grewia optiva
Fiber Composites
19.19 Luffa Fiber Composites
19.20 Some Other Natural Fibers Composites
19.21 Conclusion
References
Chapter 20: Natural and Artificial Diversification of Starch
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Natural Diversification of Starches
20.3 Artificial Diversification of Starches
References
Chapter 21: Role of Radiation and Surface Modification on Biofiber for Reinforced Polymer Composites: A Review
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Natural Fibers
21.3 Chemistry of Cellulose in NF
21.4 Drawback of NFs
21.5 Surface Modification of NFs
21.6 Radiation Effect on the Surface of Biofiber
21.7 Biocomposites
21.8 Hybrid Biocomposites
21.9 Nanofillers and Nanocomposites
21.10 Initiative in Product Development of NF Composite
21.11 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Index
End User License Agreement
Guide
Cover
Copyright
Contents
Begin Reading
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Physically modified chitosan derivative.
Table 1.2 Gibbs free energy for the various derivatives of chitosan.
Table 1.3 Chemically modified ions imprinted chitosan derivatives.
Table 1.4 Chitosan based MIP for adsorption of organic compounds.
Table 1.5 Molecularly imprinted Chitosan based adsorbents for simultaneous removal of organic and inorganic compounds.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Methods for oil spill cleanup (Zahed
et al.,
2005; Zhu
et al.,
2001).
Table 2.2 Oil sorption capacities of some typical sorbents (Ross, 1991).
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Catalytic aerobic oxidation of alcohols by Pd(II)-based macrocomplexes.
Table 3.2 Partial hydrogenation of selected alkynes by Pd-NPs onto end-functionalized stereocomplexes.
Table 3.3 Selective cinnamaldehyde hydrogenation by Pd-NPs onto end-functionalized stereocomplexes.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Solubility of chitin in DMA-NMP-LiCl mixture
a)
.
Table 4.2 Membrane preparation method.
Table 4.3 Characteristics of permeation and separation for aqueous alcohol solution through the chitosan membrane in pervapration.
Table 4.4 Characteristics of permeation and separation for aqueous ethanol solution in pervaporation and evapomeation.
Table 4.5 Transport direction of uracil (Ura), cytosine (Cyt), adenine (Ade), guanine (Gua) and K
+
ion in the transport against the concentration gradient through the quaternized chitosan membrane.
Table 4.6 Kinetic date in urea hydrolysis by the urease-immobilized membrane and native urease.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Measured densities of polymer samples.
Table 5.2 Measured and ideal densities of different biocomposites.
Table 5.3 Measured thermal properties of polymer samples.
Chapter 6
Table 6.2 TGA data for the neat-plasticized PVC and plasticized PVC nanocomposites (Chauyjuljit
et al.,
2014).
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Applications of chitosan in the textile field onto fibrous materials.
Table 7.2 Yield and antimicrobial activity against
E. coli,
before and after washing with two detergents, evaluated on chitosan-treated samples (formulation diluted with 2% acetic acid) (reprinted with permission of Elsevier from Periolatto
et al.,
2012).
Table 7.3 Antibacterial activity of chitosan-treated cotton samples as prepared and after 10 and 30 washing cycles (reprinted with permission of Elsevier from Ferrero
et al.,
2015).
Table 7.4 Microorganism reduction of chitosan-treated wool fabrics: influence of impregnation, chitosan add-on and oxidative pretreatment (reprinted with permission of Elsevier from Periolatto
et al.,
2013).
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin contents of different species of plants.
Table 8.2 Characteristics sizes found to whiskers obtained by different ways.
Table 8.3 Values of dimensions, zeta potential, and Ci of cellulose whiskers unmodified (CW) and modified (CWMA).
Table 8.4 Thermal degradation temperatures (T
onset
and Td
max
), weight loss at 100 °C and relative humidity of cotton fibers, CW, and CWMA.
Table 8.5 Thermal characteristics of LDPE and LDPE/CW and LDPE/CWMA nanocomposites.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Chemical and physical properties of coir fibers and glass fibers.
Table 9.2 Composition and properties of some natural fibers from literature (Arrakhiz
et al.
2012a-c, 2013a-c).
Table 9.3 Summary of the process parameters used for compounding of PP/coir fiber.
Table 9.4 Sample labels of the composites prepared.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Polymers in osteochondral TE.
Table 10.2 List of osteochondral implants with clinical status.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Overview of reported fibers.
Table 11.2 Content of chemical elements on the fiber surfaces determined by EDS methods.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Classification of biopolymers (Adapted from Avérous & Pollet, 2002; John & Thomas, 2008).
Table 12.2 Physical properties of Starch-PVA blends films obtained by csting technique.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Temperature profile for samples homogenizing.
Table 13.2 Thermal behavior of PP/HMSPP SCB foams.
Table 13.3 Thermal behavior of 10% SCB in PP/HMSPP foam, subjected to gamma radiation: 0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 kGy.
Table 13.4 Mass loss variation (%) for non-irradiated 10, 15, 30, and 50%SCB in PP/HMSPP foams after 1 (one) year of soil burial.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 The estimated world-wide production of fibrous raw materials from agricultural crops.
1
Table 14.2 VASP of MMA on substrates.
Table 14.3 VASP of MMA on pulverized rice straw surface.
Table 14.4 VASP of MMA on MAAh-modified and unmodified celluloses.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Chemical composition of okra bast and other plant fibers.
Table 15.2 Physical properties of okra bast fibers and other plant fibers (Satyanarayana, Guimarães, & Wypych, 2007; Rai, Hosssain, & Hossain, 2012; M. Tahir, Ahmed, SaifulAzry, & Ahmed, 2011).
Table 15.3 Infrared band assignment of okra bast fiber.
Table 15.4 Comparative properties of some plant fibers.
Table 15.5 List of characterization methods applied on okra bast fibers.
Table 15.6 List of surface modification treatments applied on okra bast fibers.
Table 15.7 Water absorption of surface-treated okra bast fibers.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Silanes used for the NFPCs: chemical structures, organofunctionalities, and target plastic matrices.
Table 16.2 Improvement (%) in tensile properties of natural fiber/thermoplastic composites coupled with different functionalities of silanes in the absent of initiators.
Table 16.3 Mechanical properties of natural fiber/PE composites coupled with the representative vinylsilanes in the presence of peroxide initiator.
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Properties of PP coconut fiber composite and coconut treated with different concentrations of NaOH (Huang, 2009).
Table 17.2 Data Stretch at break, elastic modulus, and maximum stress for composite HDPE + banana fibers (Fint – fiber interne; Finterm – Fiber intermediary; and Fext – Fiber extern) and coconut fibers, pure and impregnated, with the interfacial agents with LA, SA, polyethyleneglycol stearate (PEGEst), polyethylene glycol laurate (PEGLau), and glyceryl stearate (GFYEst).
Table 17.3 Impact properties for the HDPE composites with coconut and banana fibers (Fint, Finterm, and Fext), pure and impregnated, with the interfacial agents.
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Surface modification techniques.
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Mechanical properties of natural fibres as reinforcing fibres (Thakur & Thakur, 2014a,b; Dittenber
et al.,
2012; Kabir
et al.,
2012; Alireza Dehghani, 2013; Xue Li, 2007).
Table 19.2 Chemical composition of some natural fibres (Thakur & Thakur, 2014a,b; Dittenber
et al.,
2012; Kabir
et al.
,
2012; Alireza Dehghani
et al.,
2013; Xue Li
et al.,
2007).
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Size of starch globules and amylose content in starches of various plant species (Alcazar-Alay & Meireles, 2009; Zhang
et al.,
2005; Mirmoghtadaie
et al.,
2009; Choi
et al.,
2004; Singh
et al.,
2003; Ao & Jane, 2007; Hoover & Ratnayake, 2002; Radosta
et al.,
1992).
Table 20.2 Content of non-saccharide components in grains of starches of various plant species (Be Miller, 1999; Hover, 2001; Alkazar-Alay & Meireles, 2015; Radosta
et al.,
1992; Caballero, 2003).
Table 20.3 Range of pasting temperatures of starch of various botanical origin (Be Miller, 1999; BeMiller & Vhistler, 2009; Callero, 2003; Tegge, 2004; Alcazar-Alay & Meireles, 2015; Singh
et al.,
2003).
Table 20.4 Properties of starch pastes (Lewandowicz & Fornal, 2008).
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 Properties of natural fibers in relationtothoseofE-glass (Beukers, A. 2005).
Table 21.2 Chemical treatments used for modification of NFs.
Table 21.3 Reported work on hybrid composites.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Structure of chitosan.
Figure 1.2 Chitosan.
Figure 1.3 Quaternisation of amino group of chitosan.
Figure 1.4 Glutaraldehyde cross-linked chitosan.
Figure 1.5 Chitosan cross-linked with epichlorohydrin.
Figure 1.6 Functionalisation of chitosan using epichlorohydrin as cross-linking agent (Thiourea grafted chitosan).
Figure 1.7 Schematic representation for the synthesis of molecularly imprinted chitosan based adsorbents.
Figure 1.8 Reported literature (from 2010–2014) on work done on adsorption of 1) inorganic 2) organic 3) inorganic and organic compound onto molecularly imprinted chitosan composites.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Physico-chemical changes during ‘Weathering’ process of oil from the sea surface.
Figure 2.2 Schematic mechanism of the adsorbate disperses from the main body of waterway.
Figure 2.3 Dry system and oil layered system for oil sorption capacity.
Figure 2.4 Oil adsorption filters and test equipment.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Some examples of macrocomplexes obtained by Schubert and Fraser.
Figure 3.2 Sn(II)-mediated macroligand synthesis via ROP.
Figure 3.3 Syntheses of end-functionalized PLA.
Figure 3.4 End-functionalized PLA-based stereocomplexes.
Figure 3.5 PXRD spectra of PLA (a) and its stereocomplex (b).
Figure 3.6 Syntheses of Pd(II) macrocomplexes.
Figure 3.7 Syntheses of Pd(OAc)
2
complexes bearing end-functionalized stereocomplexes.
Figure 3.8 UV–vis spectra of selected Pd(II) macrocomplexes and the corresponding model compound.
Figure 3.9 Pd-NPs’ synthesis by reduction of Pd(OAc)
2
stereocomplexes by hydrogen.
Figure 3.10 Synthesis of Pd-NPs onto stereocomplexes by MVS.
Figure 3.11 TEM micrographs of Pd@L
3/4
obtained by hydrogen reduction of pre-coordinated Pd(II) (left, d
m
= 3.80 ± 0.95 nm) and by MVS (right, d
m
= 2.0 ± 0.6 nm).
Figure 3.12 Variable-temperature PXRD spectra of Pd@L
Bn
(left) and Pd@L
Bn
(right): (a) RT, (b) 205 °C, (c) 225 °C, and (d) RT (after heating). Asterisk denotes the Bragg reflex stemming from heating chamber window material and X denotes Bragg reflexes stemming from sample holder material (Al
2
O
3
).
Figure 3.13 GPC traces of L
1
before (a) and after (b) its treatment with benzyl alcohol under real catalytic conditions.
Figure 3.14 Chemoselective hydrogenation of
α,β
-unsaturated carbonyl compounds by
trans-
[Pd(OAc)
2
(L
1
)
2
] in toluene.
Figure 3.15 High-resolution XPS spectra of the Pd3d region before and after catalysis.
Figure 3.16 Partial hydrogenation of selected alkynes by Pd-NPs onto end-functionalized stereocomplexes.
Figure 3.17 Pd-macrocomplexes used as model compound for the formation of Pd-NPs by reduction with hydrogen.
Figure 3.18 PLA-based stereocomplexes bearing two different catalytic centers for tandem reactions.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Chemical structure of chitin and chitosan.
Figure 4.2 Principle of diffusion dialysis.
Figure 4.3 Principle of reverse osmosis.
Figure 4.4 Principle of ultrafiltration.
Figure 4.5 Relationship among the degree of heparinization of chitosan membranes, ultrafiltration characteristics and water contents.
and are the permeation rate for aqueous urea, creatinine, glucose, BSP, vitamin B
12
, and alubumin respectively.
is the rejection for urea, creatinine, glucose BSP and vitamin B
12
.
is the rejection for albumin.
is the water content. Operating condition are 37 °C, 1 kg/cm
2
.
Figure 4.6 Pervaporation (PV).
Figure 4.7 Characteristics of permeation and separation for aqueous ethanol solutions through the chitosan (
) and GAC (
) membranes by pervaporation.
Figure 4.8 Effects of the TEOS content on the normailized permeation rate (
) and the ethanol concentration in the permeate (
) during pervaporation of an azeotrope mixiture of ethanol/water through q-Chito/TEOS hybrid membranes.
Figure 4.9 Effects of the degree of benzoylation on the benzene concentration in the permeate (O) and permeation rate (
) through the benzoylchitosan membranes for benzene/cycloxexane sorbed into their membranes (
) for benzene/cycloxexane mixture. the dotted line is the feed mixture composition (benzene/cycloxexane = 50/50,w/w)
Figure 4.10 Principle of evapomeation.
Figure 4.11 Effects of ethanol concentration in the feed vapor on the permeation and separation characteristics and degree of swelling of the chitosan (n) and GAC (
) membranes by evapomeation.
Scheme 4.1 Model structures of the chitosan and GAC membranes.
: pyranose ring.
Figure 4.12 Principle of temperature difference-controlled evapomeation (TDEV).
Figure 4.13 Tentative separation mechanism for aqueous dimethyl sulfoxide solution through the chitosan membrane for TDEV.
Figure 4.14 SEM micrographs of the surface and cross section of porous chitosan membrane.
Figure 4.15 Effect of the temperature of the membrane surroundings on the permeation rate and separation factor for the H
2
O/DMSO selectivity of an aqueous solution of 50 wt% DMSO through a porous chitosan membrane during TDEV. Feeld solution is 40 °C. Reduced pressure and inflow amount of dry are 2 × 10
4
Pa and 400 ml/min, respectively.
Figure 4.16 Tentative mechanism of the permeation and separation characteristics for aqueous DMSO solution through porous chitosan membrane.
Figure 4.17 Diagram of the apparatus for HTPEV and the permeation cell. 1: feed tank, 2: flow pump, 3: evaporator, 4: vapor resevoir, 5: permeation, 6: oven for heat, 7: cold trap, 8: vacuum controller, 9: vacuum pump, 10: condenser, A: feed vapor, B: membrane, C: permeated vapor, D: O-ring, E: packing.
Figure 4.18 Fandamental types of membrane transport.
Figure 4.19 Types of active transport.
Figure 4.20 Changes of the Br
–
and the Na
+
ion concentrations and pH with time on both sides through the membrane from the chitosan/PVA ratio of 40/60 L side: 0.1 M NaBr and 0.1 M NaOH; Rside: 0.1 M HBr.
Figure 4.21 Tentative mechanism for the uphill transport of halogen ions or organic anions the chitosan membrane. (A
-
) halogen ion or organic anion: (M
+
) metal ion.
Figure 4.22 Facilitation of the uphill transport of Cl ion through the chitosan membrane by adding of 18-crown-6 in the basic side.
Figure 4.23 Tentative mechanism for the transport of benzoate ions through the chitosan membrane against the concentration gradient.
Figure 4.24 Tentative mechanism for the transport of L-phnylalanine through the chitosan membrane against the concentration gradient.
Figure 4.25 Principle of catalytically functionalized separation through a membrane. ©: Catalyst.
Figure 4.26 Principle of gas permeation through a membrane.
Figure 4.27 Fundamental type of fuel cell.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Synthesis of acrylated epoxidized flax oil (Rana and Evitts, 2015b).
Figure 5.2 Water absorption results of AEFO, PLA, PP, and HDPE polymer matrices and their biocomposites. The uncertainty presented in the figure is at the 95% confidence level.
Reproduced with permission from Journal of Applied Polymer Science 2014; ©John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (Rana and Evitts, 2015a).
Figure 5.3 Stress–stress curve of AEFO bio-resin.
Figure 5.4 Tensile strength of AEFO, PLA, PP, and HDPE polymer matrices and their biocomposites. The uncertainty presented in the figure is at the 95% confidence level.
Figure 5.5 Effect of flax fiber and styrene content on tensile strength of AEFO biocomposites. The uncertainty presented in the figure is at the 95% confidence level.
Reproduced with permission from Journal of Applied Polymer Science 2014; ©John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (Rana and Evitts, 2015a).
Figure 5.6 Young’s modulus of AEFO, PLA, PP and HDPE polymer matrices and their biocomposites. The uncertainty presented in the figure is at the 95% confidence level.
Figure 5.7 Effect of flax fiber and styrene content on Young’s modulus of AEFO biocomposites. The uncertainty presented in the figure is at the 95% confidence level.
Reproduced with permission from Journal of Applied Polymer Science 2014; ©John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (Rana and Evitts, 2015a)
Figure 5.8 Flexural strength of AEFO, PLA, PP and HDPE polymer matrices and their biocomposites. The uncertainty presented in the figure is at the 95% confidence level.
Figure 5.9 Effect of flax fiber and styrene content on flexural strength of AEFO biocomposites. The uncertainty presented in the figure is at the 95% confidence level.
Reproduced with permission from Journal of Applied Polymer Science 2014; ©John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (Rana and Evitts, 2015a)
Figure 5.10 Flexural modulus of AEFO, PLA, PP and HDPE polymer matrices and their biocomposites. The uncertainty presented in the figure is at the 95% confidence level.
Figure 5.11 Effect of flax fiber and styrene content on flexural modulus of AEFO biocomposites. The uncertainty presented in the figure is at the 95% confidence level.
Reproduced with permission from Journal of Applied Polymer Science 2014; ©John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (Rana and Evitts, 2015a)
Figure 5.12 Rockwell hardness number of AEFO, PLA, PP and HDPE polymer matrices and their biocomposites. The uncertainty presented in the figure is at the 95% confidence level.
Figure 5.13 Effect of flax fiber and styrene content on hardness of AEFO biocomposites. The uncertainty presented in the figure is at the 95% confidence level.
Reproduced with permission from Journal of Applied Polymer Science 2014; ©John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (Rana and Evitts, 2015a)
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Portion of renewable resources of the total production of energy and products in the United States (aims and prognosis) (Willke & Vorlop, 2004).
Figure 6.2 The silanol group on the silica surface.
Figure 6.3 The molecular structure of various organosilanes: (a) amino-silane, (b) epoxy-silane, (c) methacryloxy-silane, and (d) vinyl-silane (Andriot
et al.,
2009).
Figure 6.4 The connective bridge of silane coupling agent between organic and inorganic materials.
Figure 6.5 Functionalization of silica by MPTMS (Chuayjuljit & Boonmahitthisud, 2010).
Figure 6.6 FT-IR spectra of (a) naked silica nanoparticles and (b) MPTMS-treated silica nanoparticle (Chuayjuljit & Boonmahitthisud, 2010).
Table 6.1 The average diameter size of particles from various polymerization (Kawaguchi, 2000).
Figure 6.7 The mechanism of microemulsion polymerization (Antonietti
et al.,
1995).
Figure 6.8 The particle diameter size of differential microemulsion polymerization compared to microemulsion polymerization (Norakankorn
et al.,
2007).
Figure 6.9 The mechanism of differential microemulsion polymerization (He
et al.,
2007).
Figure 6.10 The scheme for the encapsulation of silica nanoparticles by PS through MPTMS as a silane coupling agent.
Figure 6.11 TEM images of (a) PS–nSiO
2
and (b) PMMA–nSiO
2
nanoparticles synthesized by
in situ
differential microemulsion polymerization (Chuayjuljit & Boonmahitthisud, 2010); (Chauyjuljit
et al,
2014).
Figure 6.12 FT-IR spectra of (a) PS–nSiO
2
and (b) PMMA–nSiO
2
nanoparticles (Chuayjuljit & Boonmahitthisud, 2010); (Chauyjuljit
et al.,
2014).
Figure 6.13 The tensile properties of neat-plasticized PVC and plasticized PVC nanocomposites: (a) tensile strength, (b) Young’s modulus, and (c) elongation at break (Chauyjuljit
et al.,
2014).
Figure 6.14 The tear strength of neat-plasticized PVC and plasticized PVC nanocomposites (Chauyjuljit
et al.,
2014).
Figure 6.15 SEM micrographs of the (a) neat-plasticized PVC, (b–e) plasticized PVC/nSiO
2
nanocomposites inclusions at (3–9 phr, respectively) and (f–i) plasticized PVC/PMMA–nSiO
2
nanocomposites inclusions at (3–9 phr, respectively) (Chauyjuljit
et al.,
2014).
Figure 6.16 The tensile properties of neat NR and NR/PS–nSiO
2
nanocomposites: (a) tensile strength, (b) Young’s modulus, and (c) elongation at break (Chuayjuljit & Boonmahitthisud, 2010).
Figure 6.17 The storage modulus
(E’)
of the neat NR and NR/PS–nSiO
2
nanocomposites inclusions at 3–9 phr (Chuayjuljit & Boonmahitthisud, 2010).
Figure 6.18 SEM micrographs of the neat NR and NR/PS–nSiO
2
nanocomposites inclusions at 3–9 phr (Chuayjuljit & Boonmahitthisud, 2010).
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Chitosan preparation from chitin.
Figure 7.2 Reaction of genipin with chitosan (reprinted with permission of Elsevier from Muzzarelli, 2009a).
Figure 7.3 Photodissociation mechanism of Darocur 1173.
Figure 7.4 Candidates radical sites on chitosan (reprinted with permission of Elsevier from Saiki
et al.,
2010).
Figure 7.5 SEM images of: (a) untreated cotton (magnification ratio 2500X), (b) cotton treated with 3% chitosan add-on (magnification ratio 2500X), and (c) cotton treated with 3% chitosan add-on (magnification ratio 4500X) (reprinted with permission of Elsevier from Periolatto
et al.,
2012).
Figure 7.6 SEM images. Upper: untreated sample (a) magnification 20X, (b) magnification 600X. Lower: 25% chitosan add-on: (c) magnification 20X, (d) magnification 600X (reprinted with permission of Elsevier from Ferrero
et al.,
2014a).
Figure 7.7 Continuous filtration system: scheme (left) and operative system (right) of the experiment setup (reprinted with permission of Elsevier from Ferrero
et al.,
2014a).
Figure 7.8 Continuous flow test against
S. aureus
and
K. pneumoniae:
(a) chitosan-treated gauze (25% chitosan add-on) and (b) cationized gauze (reprinted with permission of Elsevier from Ferrero
et al.,
2014a).
Figure 7.9 Results of shrinkage area measurements of wool fabrics in function of chitosan concentration in laboratory tests.
Figure 7.10 Comparison of results of shrinkage area measurements between samples of wool chitosan treated in laboratory and semi-industrial tests.
Figure 7.11 Dyeing tests with Telon Turquoise on wool: (a) untreated, (b) 2% chitosan add-on without oxidative pretreatment, (c) after oxidative pretreatment alone, and (d) 2% chitosan add-on after oxidative pretreatment. Dyeing conditions: 1% dye on weight fibers, liquor ratio 1:50, pH 4, 85 °C for 1 h; dyed samples rinsed in cold water and dried at 100 °C (reprinted with permission of Elsevier from Periolatto
et al.,
2013).
Figure 7.12 Color strength of wool samples dyed with Telon Turquoise: untreated (NT), after oxidative pretreatment alone (OX), with 2% chitosan add-on without oxidative pretreatment (CH), with 2% chitosan add-on after oxidative pretreatment (OX + CH) (reprinted with permission of Elsevier from Periolatto
et al.,
2013).
Figure 7.13 Bath exhaustion in dyeing tests with Telon Turquoise of chitosan-treated wool, 2% add-on without oxidative pretreatment, with different impregnation and after washings with different surfactants (reprinted with permission of Elsevier from Periolatto
et al.,
2013).
Figure 7.14 Adsorption capacities at various pH of cotton gauze 25% chitosan add-on (2000 mg/L initial dye concentration, 24 h contact time, 25 °C).
Figure 7.15 Kinetic curves for batch adsorption on 25% add-on gauze at 25 °C, pH 4 and 1000 mg/L dye initial concentration.
Figure 7.16 Continuous flow assessment for dye adsorption on chitosan-coated cotton gauze.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Cellulose molecule, pointing the number of carbon atoms in one ring.
Figure 8.2 Sisal fibers before (a) and after (b) treatments to remove noncellulosic compounds (Campos
et al.,
2011).
Figure 8.3 Cellulose whiskers extracted from microfibrils by amorphous phase removal.
Figure 8.4 Aqueous suspension of colored cotton cellulose whiskers white (CNW), brown (CNB), green (CNG), and ruby (CNR) (Teixera
et al.,
2010b).
Figure 8.5 Esterification reaction between MAH and cellulose molecule.
Figure 8.6 Molecular structure of ethylene, as monomer of LDPE, followed by LDPE chains.
Figure 8.7 SEM micrography of cotton fibers (a), highlighting cellulose microfibrils (b), attached by lignin and hemicelluloses. Cellulose whiskers unmodified are shown in (c), and modified in (d).
Figure 8.8 FTIR spectra of cotton fibers (a), CW (b), and CWMA (c).
Figure 8.9 HPDC solid-state
13
C NMR spectra of cellulose whiskers CW (a) and CWMA (b).
Figure 8.10 XRD patterns of cotton fibers (a), CW (b), and CWMA (c).
Figure 8.11 TG and DTG curves of cotton fibers (a), CW (b), and CWMA (c).
Figure 8.12 FTIR spectra of neat LDPE (a), LDPE/1CW (b) LDPE/3CW (c), LDPE/1CWMA (d), and LDPE/3CWMA (e).
Figure 8.13 Micrograph of neat LDPE (a) and nanocomposites LDPE/1CW (b), LDPE/3CW (c) LDPE/1CWMA (d), and LDPE/3CWMA (e).
Figure 8.14 DSC curves on heating of (a) neat LDPE and of nanocomposites (b) LDPE/1CW, (c) LDPE/3CW, (d) LDPE/1CWMA, and (e) LDPE/3CWMA.
Figure 8.15 Mechanical properties of LDPE/CW and LDPE/CWMA nanocomposites films: (a) elongation at break, (b) maximum stress, and (c) elastic modulus.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Coir fiber structure.
Scheme 9.1 The alkali treatment reaction mechanism of coir fiber.
Scheme 9.2 The bleaching reaction mechanism of coir fiber.
Scheme 9.3 The ether treatment reaction mechanism of coir fiber.
Scheme 9.4 The acetyl treatment reaction mechanism of coir fiber.
Scheme 9.5 The silane treatment reaction mechanism of coir fiber.
Scheme 9.6 The reaction mechanism of coir fiber with the PP-g-MA.
Scheme 9.7 The reaction mechanism of coir fiber with the SEBS-g-MA.
Figure 9.2 Photographs of coir fiber: (a) raw coir fiber image, (b) alkalized fiber image, (c) bleaching fiber image, (d) ether fiber image, (e) silane fiber image, and (f) acetyl fiber image.
Figure 9.3 Fibers under an OM using a 20x objective: (a) raw coir fiber image, (b) alkalized fiber image, (c) bleaching fiber image, (d) ether fiber image, (e) silane fiber image, and (f) acetyl fiber image.
Figure 9.4 Morphology (SEM) images of coir fiber composite.
Figure 9.5 FT-IR spectra of raw, alkalized, bleaching coir fibers.
Figure 9.6 Tensile properties of various composites as function of chemical treatment: (a) Young’s modulus, (b) tensile strength, and (c) strain at yield.
Figure 9.7 (a) Complex modulus as a function of PP composites made with the various chemically treated fibers at different frequencies and (b) loss factor (tan δ) for the same conditions.
Figure 9.8 Rheological properties of various composites as a function of chemical treatment of fibers at different frequencies: (a) storage modulus, (b) loss modulus, and (c) damping factor.
Figure 9.9 Water absorption of neat PP and coir/PP composites.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 (a) Particle reinforcement, (b) fiber reinforcement, (c) platelet reinforcement, (d) whisker reinforcement, and (e) sandwich/laminated composite.
Figure 10.2 Structural orientation of (a) collagen and hydroxyapatite in human bone, (b) argonite crystals in nacre (Schäffer
et al.,
1997), and (c) β-sheet crystals in silk fibroin.
Figure 10.3 Intrinsic and extrinsic toughening mechanism in bone: (a) crack deflection, (b) bridging with ligament, (c) bridging with collagen fibrils, and (d) microcracking.
Figure 10.4 Structural hierarchy of osteochondral interface: (Side A) cellular orientation and (Side B) orientation of collagen fibrils (zone wise).
Figure 10.5 Structures of naturally occurring polymers: (a) chitosan, (b) hyaluronic acid, (c) chondroitin sulfate, (d) alginate, and (e) agarose.
Figure 10.6 Structures of synthetic polymers: (a) PVA, (b) PEG, (c) PCL, (d) PNIPAAm, (e) poly(lactic acid), (f) poly(glycolic acid), (g) poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), (h) polyhydroxy butyrate, and (i) polyureathane.
Figure 10.7 Photo cross-linking of polymer solution to fabricate osteochondral scaffolds.
Figure 10.8 Enzymatic cross-linking of polymers.
Figure 10.9 Interpenetrating network of polymeric hydrogels.
Figure 10.10 Multilayered osteochondral plug (Aydin, 2011).
Chapter 11
Scheme 11.1 Overview of the reviewed fibers and their categories.
Scheme 11.2 Chemical structure of cellulose.
Scheme 11.3 Structure of coniferyl alcohol with possible bonding sides for three-dimensional cross-linking in lignin.
Figure 11.1 Humidity content of fibers under standard conditions (room temperature of 20 °C and relative humidity of 65%).
Figure 11.2 FT-IR spectra of natural plant fibers (cotton, linen, ramie, banana), most prominent stretch vibrations
ν
are indicated.
Figure 11.3 FT-IR spectra peat fibers (row and refined); most prominent stretch vibrations
v
are indicated.
Figure 11.4 FT-IR spectra of fibers from stinging nettle of different origin; most prominent stretch vibrations
ν
are indicated.
Figure 11.5 FT-IR spectra of regenerated protein fibers (soya fiber and milk fiber); most prominent stretch vibrations
ν
are indicated, also indicated are the bending and stretch vibration typical for an amide group (Amides I and II).
Figure 11.6 FT-IR spectra of regenerated fibers (mais fiber, Seacell fiber, Tencel fiber); most prominent stretch vibrations
ν
are indicated.
Figure 11.7 SEM images; comparison of conventional plant fibers (left: fiber; middle: fiber cross-section in magnitude X800; right: fiber cross-section in magnitude X2000).
Figure 11.8 SEM images; comparison of unconventional plant fibers (left: fiber; middle: fiber crosssection in magnitude X800; right: fiber cross-section in magnitude X2000).
Figure 11.9 SEM images of different stinging nettle fiber samples (left fibers; right: fiber cross-section).
Figure 11.10 SEM images of different regenerated fibers (left: fibers; right: fiber cross-section).
Figure 11.11 Examples for EDS spectra of fiber materials. Here shown for cotton fiber and milk fiber. The recorded peaks in the spectra are related to chemical elements which are present on the fiber surface. The detected elements carbon, nitrogen and oxygen are indicated in the graph.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Starch production in the EU (Source: Starch Europe, 2013).
Figure 12.2 Main starch applications in the EU. (Source: Starch Europe, 2013).
Figure 12.3 Use of bioplastics in different industrial sectors, 2013. (Source: European Bioplastics, Institute for Bioplastics and Biocomposites, Nova-Institute, 2014).
Figure 12.4 The chemical structure and the effect of molecular weight and level of hydrolysis on the physical properties of PVA. (Source: adapted from Tang and Alavi, 2011).
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 TG and DTG curves for 355 μm SCB.
Figure 13.2 TG and DTG curves for PP/HMSPP matrix.
Figure 13.3 TG and DTG for non-irradiated PP/HMSPP and its composites with SCB.
Figure 13.4 TG and DTG for irradiated mixture of 10% SCB in PP/HMSPP foam.
Figure 13.5 FTIR spectra for non-irradiated PP/HMSPP.
Figure 13.6 FTIR spectra for non-irradiated SCB 355 μm.
Figure 13.7 FTIR spectra for non-irradiated SCB in PP/HMSPP foams.
Figure 13.8 FTIR spectra for 10% SCB in PP/HMSPP foam subjected to gamma radiation at 50, 100, 150, and 200 kGy.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Schematic structure of natural fiber.
Figure 14.2 The results of tensile strength for PP/ETF without or with MAPP.
Figure 14.3 FTIR spectra of polypropyrene before and after vapor-phase surface-assisted polymerization (VASP) of MMA.
Figure 14.4 FTIR spectra of rice straw powder before and after VASP of MMA and the extract.
Figure 14.5 TG (a) and DTG (b) profiles of rice straw, rice straw/PMMA composite by VASP before and after extraction treatment.
Figure 14.6 Wettability and melt-moldability tests of rice straw powder modified by VASP of MMA with a water droplet. Wettability test on (a) unmodified rice straw powder and (b) modified rice straw powder; melt-moldability test: press-molded sheet from composite sample entry 3–3 in Table 14.3 (c), and its cross-section SEM images: (d) ×60 and (e) ×200.
Scheme 14.1 Acetylation of cellulose with acetic anhydride by vapor-phase reaction.
Figure 14.7 FTIR spectra of cellulose, modified celluloses with acetic anhydride, and extracted them by CHCl
3
.
Figure 14.8 TG profiles of original cellulose and acetylated celluloses before and after washing with Soxhlet method.
Figure 14.9 SEM micrographs of wood flour/PLLA samples changed in morphology with time of VASP. WET-SEM (Magnification; ×400) (a) native wood flour, (b) 6 h, (c) 9 h, and (d)15 h.
Figure 14.10 Changes in molecular weight of accumulated PLLA with time of VASP
Figure 14.11 Wettability test using a droplet of water on surfaces of (a) native wood flour and (b) wood flour after VASP of LLA for 24 h and following extraction process.
Figure 14.12 DSC cooling traces after melting of composites after VASP and extracted PLLA.
Figure 14.13 Tensile data (a) and Flexural data (b) for PLLA/WSF composite with and without VASP of MMA treatment.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 (a) Okra plantation. Image captured by G. M. A. Khan, (b) okra bast fiber. With permission from (De Rosa
et al.,
2010); Copyright 2010 Elsevier.
Figure 15.2 SEM micrograph of okra bast fiber: (a) longitudinal view. With permission from (G. M. A. Khan
et al.,
2009); Copyright 2009 Springer. (c) Crosssectional view. With permission from (De Rosa
et al.,
2011); Copyright 2011 Elsevier.
Figure 15.3 FTIR spectra (a) and XRD diagrams (b) of okra bast fiber. Images obtained from the analyses of the authors of this chapter.
Figure 15.4 Tensile strength—diameter graph of okra bast fibers. With permission from (De Rosa
et al.,
2010). Copyright 2010 Elsevier.
Figure 15.5 Tensile stress–strain curves of okra bast fibers subjected to different surface treatments. With permission from (G. M. A. Khan
et al.,
2009). Copyright 2009 Springer.
Figure 15.6 Fracture surfaces of (a) raw, (b) bleached, (c) acetylated bleached, and (d) sulfuric acid-potassium permanganate-treated fibers. With permission from (De Rosa
et al.,
2011); Copyright 2011 Elsevier.
Figure 15.7 Grafting reaction of vinyl monomer with cellulose. Adapted with permission from (Gürdağ & Sarmad, 2013); Copyright 2013 Springer.
Figure 15.8 Effect of acrylonitrile monomer graft copolymerization parameters on graft yield of bleached okra bast fiber (a) initiator 0.002 mol/L, catalyst 0.002 mol/L, temperature 70 °C, duration 90 min; (b) acrylonitrile 0.03 mol/L, catalyst 0.002 mol/L, temperature 70 °C, duration 90 min; (c) acrylonitrile 0.03 mol/L, initiator 0.004 mol/L, temperature 70 °C, duration 90 min; (d) acrylonitrile 0.03 mol/L, initiator 0.004 mol/L, catalyst 0.005 mol/L, temperature 70 °C; and (e) acrylonitrile 0.03 mol/L, initiator 0.004 mol/L, catalyst 0.005mol/L, duration 120 min. With permission from (G. M Arifuzzaman Khan
et al.,
2009). Copyright 2009 Indian Journal of Fibre and Textile Research.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Coupling patterns of silane between natural fiber and plastic matrices in the NFPCs. The interaction pattern of silane functionality toward plastic may be physical compatibility (P) and/or covalent bonding (C).
Figure 16.2 Schematic presentation of Ti silane structures (Salon
et al.,
2007).
Figure 16.3 Interaction of silane with natural fibers by hydrolysis process (Xie
et al.,
2010).
Figure 16.4 Water uptake and swelling of wood/PP composites, untreated or treated with PTS (a, d), APS (b, e), and HS (c, f), respectively, during composites were immersed in water. The legends: Ctrl = untreated control, and the numbers are the concentrations of silanes used to treat wood particles (error bars show standard deviation) (Xie
et al.,
2013).
Figure 16.5 Radical grafting of vinylsilane onto polyethylene matrix.
Figure 16.6 Change in flexural strength of wood/PP composites (a) and wood/PE composites (b) due to treatments of wood flour with various silanes as compared with the untreated composites, respectively (DCP was used in treatments with both MPS and VTS) (Wang
et al.,
2015).
Figure 16.7 Change in strain of wood/PP composites (a) and wood/PE composites (b) with the time during the creep test, respectively (DCP was used in treatments with VTS) (Wang
et al.,
2015).
Figure 16.8 Micrographs of fractured surface of PE-based composites untreated (a) and treated with 3.0% VTS in the presence of DCP (Wang
et al.,
2015).
Figure 16.9 Coupling reaction between APS-grafted natural fiber with epoxy resin (Xie
et al.,
2010).
Figure 16.10 Reaction of MPS-grafted fiber with UP resin in the presence of a peroxide initiator (Xie
et al.,
2010).
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 The chemical components of the plant fiber structure: (a) cellulose and (b) lignin.
Figure 17.2 Lignin basic hydrolyze.
Figure 17.3 Example of banana fiber Mercerizing: (a) fiber untreated and (b) mercerization (6 h treatment with 1 M NaOH) (Platenik
et al.,
2012).
Figure 17.4 Stress at break of coconut fiber treated with NaOH solutions at different concentrations (Huang, 2009).
Figure 17.5 Elongation at break of coconut fiber treated with NaOH solution at different concentrations (Huang, 2009).
Figure 17.6 Reaction between fiber and acetic anhydride.
Figure 17.7 Mechanism of acylation using basic catalyst (pyridine).
Figure 17.8 Reaction between the fiber and SA.
Figure 17.9 Multiple points of interaction.
Figure 17.10 Stretch under tension versus deformation of HDPE composites/pure banana fibers and impregnated with LA, SA, PEGEst, PEGLau, and GLYEst: (a) “Finterm”, (b) “Fint”, and (c) “Fext”.
Figure 17.11 Tension under traction versus deformation of HDPE composites/pure coconut fiber and impregnated with LA, SA, PEGEst, PEGLau, and GLYEst.
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Schematic illustration of factors that influence on Young’s modulus.
Figure 18.2 Schematic representation of the following phases after biomaterial implantation.
Figure 18.3 Schematic illustration of the most popular surface functionalization methods.
Figure 18.4 Plasma treatment of various medical substrates – optical images of Ti6Al7Nb alloy (magnification 40×): (a) unmodified and (b) treated with O
2
plasma and after deposition of CS coatings; SEM images of Ti6Al4V alloy: (c) unmodified and (d) treated with O
2
plasma and after deposition of CS coatings; AFM images of PE: (e) unmodified and (f) treated with Ar/O
2
plasma and after gradient coatings deposition (N-DLC/Si-DLC).
Figure 18.5 The attachment chemistry of the most common surface linkages.
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Classification of natural fibres based on origin (Thakur & Thakur, 2014a; Thakur
et al.,
2014b; Azwa
et al.,
2013; Alireza Dehghani, 2013).
Figure 19.2 Classification of biobased polymers (Thakur & Thakur, 2014a; Thakur
et al.,
2014b).
Figure 19.3 Structure of biofiber (Thakur & Thakur, 2014a; Thakur
et al.,
2014b; Azwa
et al.,
2013; Kabir
et al.,
2012).
Figure 19.4 The responsible cell wall compositions for properties of lignocellulosics fibres (Azwa
et al.,
2013).
Figure 19.5 FTIR spectra of various composites: (a) FTIR spectra of UTCSE and TCSE composite (Suresh Kumar
et al.
2014), (b) FTIR spectra of untreated and treated date palm leaf fibres (Alireza Dehghani
et al.
2013), (c) banana: bagasse: and sponge gourd (Guimaraes
et al.
2009), (d) FTIR spectra of treated and untreated hemp fibres (Elkhaoulani
et al.
2013).
Figure 19.6 Comparison of (a) tensile properties of different % NaOH treated banana composites and (b) flexural properties of different % NaOH-treated banana composites (Venkateshwaran
et al.,
2013).
Figure 19.7 SEM image of (a) untreated banana fiber, (b) 1% NaOH-treated banana fiber (Venkateshwaran
et al.,
2013).
Figure 19.8 Tensile strength of untreated and treated
Grewia optiva
particle fibres reinforced unsaturated polyester composites (Singha
et al.,
2013).
Figure 19.9 Compressive strength of untreated and treated
Grewia optiva
particle fibres-reinforced unsaturated polyester composites (Singha
et al.,
2013).
Figure 19.10 Flexural strength of untreated and treated
Grewia optiva
particle fibres-reinforced unsaturated polyester composites (Singha
et al.,
2013).
Figure 19.11 (a) SEM images of UPE (B) + 30% raw, (b) UPE (E) + 30% benzoylated (Singha
et al.,
2013).
Figure 19.12 SEM images of tensile fracture surface for raw and treated luffa composite. (a) Fracture surface of untreated MFR composite, (b) fracture surface of treated MFR composite (Anbukarasi & Kalaiselvam, 2015).
Figure 19.13 Comparison of impact strength of abaca/jute/flax fiber–PP composites with and without MAH–PP (Omar Faruka
et al.,
2012).
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Starch from different botanic origin (Tegge, 2004; Carmona-Garcia
et al.,
2009; Hsieh
et al.,
1999; Lewandowicz & Fornal, 2008; Ao & Jane, 2007).
Figure 20.2 Basic structural motifs of amylose and amylopectin (Pérez & Bertoft, 2010).
Figure 20.3 Crystalline structure of amylopectin (Leszczyński, 2004).
Figure 20.4 Globules of potato starch in polarized light (Tegge, 2004).
Figure 20.5 Photo of a potato starch globule taken with an optical microscope (Ridout
et al.,
2002).
Figure 20.6 Structure of starch globule layers (Gallant
et al.,
1997).
Figure 20.7 Protrusions on the folded surface of starch globules: (a) wheat starch and (b) potato starch (Gallant
et al.,
1997).
Figure 20.8 The viscosity curve, which is measured by a Brabender amylograph (Peng
et al,
2007).
Figure 20.9 Pasting characteristics of 8% starch suspensions determined using Brabender viscograph (Le Thanh-Blicharz
et al.,
2011).
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Cellulose unite.
Figure 21.2 Hemicellulose unite.
Figure 21.3 Lignin.
Figure 21.4 Possible types of oxidized groups in cellulose.
Figure 21.5 Proposed reaction steps in the silane grafting of biofibers.
Figure 21.6 Possible free radicals formation by the irradiation of cellulose.
Figure 21.7 Free radicals formation by chain scission of cellulose.
Figure 21.8 Additional modes of free radicals generation.