Cover
Title Page
Acknowledgements
About the Author
Introduction
1. Health and Safety
2. Building Regulations, Listed Buildings and Planning Consent
Chapter 1: The History of Buildings
1. The development of building knowledge
2. Styles of architecture and building construction
Chapter 2: Loadings and Aspects of Structural Theory Relating to Buildings
1. Weight and mass
2. Permanent actions or dead loads
3. Variable actions or imposed loads
4. Wind load
5. Accidental actions
6. Seismic action
7. BS EN 1991: Actions on structures EC1
8. Combinations of load and factors of safety
9. Stress
10. Strain
11. Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity
12. Plastic deformation
13. Buckling
14. Local buckling
15. Second moment of area
16. Centre of gravity
17. Lateral torsional buckling
18. Neutral axis
19. Bending force
20. Shear force and bending moment
21. Deflection
22. Static equilibrium
23. Internal forces
24. Derivation of shear force
25. Derivation of bending moment
26. Derivation of deflection
27. Basic theory of bending
28. Moment of resistance
29. Combined bending and direct stress
30. External and internal statically determinate structures
31. Connections and restraints
32. Stiffness
33. Buildings and load paths
Chapter 3: The Construction of Buildings
1. Breathable and non-breathable construction
2. Timber frame
3. Stone
4. Modern timber frame construction
5. Solid brick construction
6. Cavity construction
7. Steel construction
8. Commercial steel portal frames
9. Precast concrete construction
Chapter 4: Steel
1. Steel properties
2. Lateral torsional buckling
3. The effect of end restraints on a beam
4. Bending failure
5. Local buckling
6. Shear failure
7. Web bearing and buckling
8. Deflection
9. Fire and corrosion
Chapter 5: Concrete
1. The history of cement and concrete
2. Cement
3. Water and workability – now known as consistence
4. Failure of concrete
5. Strength of concrete
6. Concrete mix designs
7. Creep
8. Environment
9. Air-entrained concrete
10. Accelerators and retarders
11. Plasticizers
12. Fly ash, silica flume and ground granulated blast furnace slag
13. Anti-corrosion
Chapter 6: Timber
1. Grading of timber
2. Moisture
3. Air-dried timber
4. Kiln-dried timber
5. Dimensions of timber
6. Shear
7. Bending
8. Deflection
Chapter 7: Foundations
1. Purpose of foundations
2. The history of foundations
3. Building Regulation requirements
4. Stepped foundation
5. Types of foundation
6. Piles
7. Bearing pressure
8. Bearing capacity
9. Eccentric loading on foundations
10. Climatic and moisture changes
11. Physical damage by trees
12. Underpinning
Chapter 8: Walls
1. The strength of walls
2. Masonry unit
3. Frost resistance and soluble salts
4. Concrete blocks
5. Mortar
6. Lime putty (non-hydraulic lime)
7. Hydraulic lime
8. Important rules in the use of lime mortars
9. Cement
10. Characteristic strength of masonry
11. Slenderness ratio
12. Flexural stiffness and the second moment of area
13. Euler load
14. Leaning walls and stability
15. Movement joints
16. Changes due to temperature changes
17. Changes due to moisture changes
18. Traditional design of walls
19. Middle-third rule
20. Timber frame walls and raking
Chapter 9: Floors
1. The history of floors
2. Modern solid floors
3. Suspended floors and engineered floor joists
4. Holes and notches in floor joists
5. Limecrete
6. The use of plaster and lime ash floors
7. Beam and block suspended floors and hollow core floors
8. Damp
9. Salts
10. Sulphate attack
11. Ceilings
Chapter 10: Roofs
1. Trussed and cut roofs
2. Modern truss roofs
3. Cut roofs
4. Roof components
5. Wind bracing
6. Roof spread
7. Overloading of roof members
8. Alterations to roof structures
9. Traditional timber frame building trusses
10. Modern rafter design
11. Flat roof construction
Chapter 11: Arches and Columns
1. The history of arches
2. Inversion theory
3. Line of thrust
4. Formation of hinges
5. Visible line of thrust
6. Height and thickness of an arch
7. Gothic arch
8. Domes
9. Columns
Chapter 12: Geology
1. The importance of understanding geology
2. Sinkholes
3. Landslips
4. Mining
5. Loess
6. Quick sand
7. Seismic activity
8. Drainage and the water table
Chapter 13: Site Investigation
1. Site investigation
2. Boreholes
3. Trenches
4. Geophysics
5. Gravity surveys
6. Magnetic surveys
7. Electromagnetic surveys
8. Electrical surveys
9. Ground-penetrating radar
10. Seismic reflection surveys
11. Seismic refraction
12. Made-up ground or fill
13. Walkover
14. Japanese knotweed
15. Buddleia
16. Desk study
17. Radon
Chapter 14: Stability of Buildings
1. Disproportionate collapse
2. Class 1
3. Class 2A
4. Class 2B
5. Class 3
Chapter 15: Dimensions of Buildings
1. Building Regulations Part A
2. Slenderness ratio
3. Buttresses and end restraints
4. Lateral restraint of walls and roofs
Chapter 16: Basements and Retaining Structures
1. Structural considerations
2. Safety factors
3. Theory behind the design
4. Loading
5. Angle of shearing resistance
6. Effects of water
7. Proportions of walls
8. Design example
9. Specialist advice
10. Types of wall
11. Basements
Chapter 17: Structural Alterations
1. Preliminary considerations
2. Removal of walls
3. Alterations to timbers and trusses
4. Alterations to roof structures for dormers
5. Loft conversions
6. Flitch beams
7. Lintels and openings
Chapter 18: Structural Defects in Buildings
1. Structural defects
2. Compression
3. Tension
4. Shear
5. Random cracking
6. Location of cracking
7. Roof spread
8. Settlement
9. Shrinkage due to thermal and moisture movements
10. Movement of brickwork along the damp-proof course
11. Subsidence
12. Chemical reactions
13. High alumina cement (HAC)
14. Wall tie failure
15. Damp
16. Overloading
17. Professional advice
Chapter 19: The Ancient Use of Sign and Geometry in the Setting Out of Buildings
1. Daisy wheel
2. The golden number or golden mean
3. Pythagoras
4. Masonic markings
5. Ordnance datum bench marks
References
1. Further Reading
Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 02
1. Table 2.1: Based on BS 648: 1964 showing mass of materials
2. Table 2.2: Shear force and bending moment at 1.0 m intervals along the beam
Chapter 03
1. Table 3.1: Types of stone commonly found in the UK and their crushing loads
Chapter 07
1. Table 7.1: Presumed safe bearing capacities for rocks, cohesive and cohesionless soils (based on Table 1 of BS 8004: 1986)
2. Table 7.2: Minimum distance to buildings of various species of tree
Chapter 08
1. Table 8.1: Frost resistance and soluble salt content of brickwork based on British Standards
2. Table 8.2: Lime mortars and their application
3. Table 8.3: Strength of lime mortars
4. Table 8.4: Load capabilities of a strut depending on end restraint
5. Table 8.5: Comparison of lateral moment of resistance for different wall types exposed to lateral wind loading
Chapter 09
1. Table 9.1: Floor joist spans for C16 grade timber (clear spans in metres)
2. Table 9.2: Floor joist spans for C24 grade timber (clear spans in metres)
3. Table 9.3: Span tables for ceiling joists using C24 grade timber (clear spans in metres)
Chapter 10
1. Table 10.1: Comparison of rafter loading for different roof pitches
2. Table 10.2: Rafter span for pitch of roof between 15° and 22.5° Grade C24 timber Imposed load 0.75 kN/m² Point load 0.9 kN
3. Table 10.3: Rafter span for pitch of roof between 22.5° and 30° Grade C24 timber Imposed load 0.75 kN/m² Point load 0.9 kN
4. Table 10.4: Rafter span for pitch of roof between 30° and 45° Grade C24 timber Imposed load 0.75 kN/m² Point load 0.9 kN
5. Table 10.5: Flat joist spans using Grade C16 timber (clear spans in metres)
Chapter 15
1. Table 15.1: Minimum thickness of certain external walls, compartments walls and separating walls. Reproduced from Part A1/2 of the Building Regulations (table 3)
Chapter 16
1. Table 16.1 Vertical loads (Rv) using CP2
2. Table 16.2 Vertical loads (Rv) calculated using Eurocode 7
3. Table 16.3 Vertical loads (Rv) for sliding using Eurocode 7
Chapter 17
1. Table 17.1: Typical beam sizes for openings
2. Table 17.2: Analysis results using a timber beam
3. Table 17.3: Analysis results using a flitch beam

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01
1. Figure 1.1: Photograph of typical cruck construction in Herefordshire.
2. Figure 1.2: Photograph showing the close proximity of timber frame housing in Leominster, increasing the risk of fire.
3. Figure 1.3: Photograph of a Jacobean house of brick construction.
4. Figure 1.4: Photograph of a Restoration-period house in Herefordshire.
5. Figure 1.5: Photograph of a Grade II listed Georgian property.
6. Figure 1.6: Photograph of a typical Regency-period terrace in Malvern.
7. Figure 1.7: Photograph of the Cotford Hotel in Malvern.
8. Figure 1.8: Photograph of a typical brick semi-detached house of the 1900–1920s era.
9. Figure 1.9: Photograph showing a typical 1930s property.
10. Figure 1.10: Photograph of a Cornish dwelling which was a particular type of prefabricated concrete house.
11. Figure 1.11: Photograph of a TRADA truss.
12. Figure 1.12: Photograph of a typical 1960s bungalow.
13. Figure 1.13: A typical 1980s house on a residential estate using clay bricks with a rendered gable.
14. Figure 1.14: A typical 1980s house on a residential estate using calcium silicate bricks.
15. Figure 1.15: A photograph of SIPs being used in construction.
Chapter 02
1. Figure 2.1: Graph showing idealised stress vs. strain relationship for steel.
2. Figure 2.2: Second moment of area for a rectangular and circular section.
3. Figure 2.3: Neutral axis along a rectangular section under a transverse load.
4. Figure 2.4: A simply supported beam, 8 m long and loaded with a uniformly distributed load of 3 kN/m.
5. Figure 2.5: Section line through beam.
6. Figure 2.6: The bending moment graph.
7. Figure 2.7: The shear force graph.
8. Figure 2.8: Derivation of shear force diagram.
9. Figure 2.9: Bending moments, deflection and shear force for standard load cases.
10. Figure 2.10: Compressive and tension stresses through a beam cross-section.
11. Figure 2.11: Bending stress and strain across a rectangular beam section.
12. Figure 2.12: Statically determinate structures.
13. Figure 2.13: Representation of roller, pinned, fixed and simple connection.
14. Figure 2.14: Load path through a dwelling.
15. Figure 2.15: Arch analysis.
Chapter 03
1. Figure 3.1: Damage caused by cement pointing.
2. Figure 3.2: Post and truss construction.
3. Figure 3.3: Box frame construction.
4. Figure 3.4: Cruck frame construction.
5. Figure 3.5: Aisled construction.
6. Figure 3.6: Internal cruck frame of Leigh Court Barn in Worcestershire, dated 1300.
7. Figure 3.7: A building in Greyfriars, Worcester dating to 1480.
8. Figure 3.8: A timber frame building circa 1500s with an extension to the right-hand side dated 1718.
9. Figure 3.9: A timber frame construction in Shrewsbury circa 1500s with decorative timber panelling.
10. Figure 3.10: A property constructed circa 1600s with convex knee brace and queen post truss.
11. Figure 3.11: A traditional timber frame from the 1700s.
12. Figure 3.12: The named parts of a traditional timber frame constructed house.
13. Figure 3.13: Photograph showing wattle and daub exposed on a damaged property in Herefordshire.
14. Figure 3.14: Illustration showing wattle and daub construction.
15. Figure 3.15: Diagram of raking to a building.
16. Figure 3.16: Photograph of raked gable wall of a house in Herefordshire.
17. Figure 3.17: Photograph showing how a chimney offers lateral strength to a timber frame property.
18. Figure 3.18: Photograph showing roman numbering of joint on a timber truss.
19. Figure 3.19: Photograph showing the jetty floor of a timber frame building in Shrewsbury.
20. Figure 3.20: An aisled barn construction.
21. Figure 3.21: Photograph of a large rubble wall in cross-section at Pembroke Castle.
22. Figure 3.22: Photograph of lime-washed walls at Pembroke Castle.
23. Figure 3.23: Photograph showing delamination of stone face due to vertical bedding.
24. Figure 3.24: A modern timber frame construction.
25. Figure 3.25: Different brick bonds.
26. Figure 3.26: Snapped header rat trap bond.
27. Figure 3.27: Example of a steel frame building.
28. Figure 3.28: Another example of a steel frame building.
29. Figure 3.29: Photograph showing exposed frame of a steel frame house.
30. Figure 3.30: A typical precast concrete Airey construction.
Chapter 04
1. Figure 4.1: Rolled steel sections.
2. Figure 4.2: Diagrams showing conditions of end restraints for structural calculation examples.
3. Figure 4.3: Five modes of failure of steel sections.
Chapter 05
1. Figure 5.1: The stress–strain relationship for concrete.
2. Figure 5.2: The stress–strain relationship for concrete where the steel yields before the concrete.
Chapter 06
1. Figure 6.1: Typical grading stamp for timber.
Chapter 07
1. Figure 7.1: Thickness of foundations, party walls and external walls taken from London Building Act 1894.
2. Figure 7.2: Diagram of stepped foundation.
3. Figure 7.3: Photograph showing a stepped brick foundation in a Georgian property.
4. Figure 7.4: Diagram of a typical slab raft foundation.
5. Figure 7.5: Diagram of a typical raft foundation with a tapered boot.
6. Figure 7.6: Photograph showing a bored pile foundation activity.
7. Figure 7.7: Showing central and eccentric loading to a foundation.
8. Figure 7.8: Showing the bearing pressure distribution for a centrally loaded and an eccentrically loaded foundation.
9. Figure 7.9: Diagram of underpinning.
Chapter 08
1. Figure 8.1: Shapes of bricks and blocks.
2. Figure 8.2: Second moment of area derivation diagram.
3. Figure 8.3: Photograph showing a fixed-end and pinned dowel.
4. Figure 8.4: Four types of masonry wall to be analysed.
5. Figure 8.5: Showing how to determine the stability of a free-standing wall.
6. Figure 8.6: Middle third of the retaining structure.
Chapter 09
1. Figure 9.1: Photograph showing a timber floor laid directly onto earth in a Georgian property.
2. Figure 9.2: Shear force diagram for a typical joist.
3. Figure 9.3: Bending moment diagram for a typical joist.
4. Figure 9.4: Diagram showing limecrete floor.
Chapter 10
1. Figure 10.1: Different modern truss types.
2. Figure 10.2: Coupled roof.
3. Figure 10.3: Close coupled roof.
4. Figure 10.4: Collared roof.
5. Figure 10.5: Lean to roof.
6. Figure 10.6: Monopitch roof.
7. Figure 10.7: Gambrel roof.
8. Figure 10.8: Photograph showing a property with roof spread.
9. Figure 10.9: Photograph of a steel ridge beam.
10. Figure 10.10: Photograph showing a house with a part thatched and part tiled roof.
11. Figure 10.11: Traditional timber truss types.
Chapter 11
1. Figure 11.1: Photograph showing the keystones and voussoirs running through the length of the English Bridge at Shrewsbury in the formation of the arch.
2. Figure 11.2: Photograph demonstrating inversion theory.
3. Figure 11.3: Photograph showing an inverted arch in compression.
4. Figure 11.4: Photograph showing failure of abutment due to arch thrust.
5. Figure 11.5: The forces in an arch abutment.
6. Figure 11.6: The visible line of thrust in an arch passing through the hinges.
7. Figure 11.7: Diagram showing the maximum and minimum positions for the line of abutment thrust.
8. Figure 11.8: Photograph showing a Doric column.
9. Figure 11.9: Photograph showing an Ionic column.
10. Figure 11.10: Photograph showing a Corinthian column.
Chapter 12
1. Figure 12.1: Photograph showing damage caused by a sinkhole in Ripon, Yorkshire. By kind permission of The Press, York.
2. Figure 12.2: Progressive development of a sinkhole in sandy cover and clay cover.
3. Figure 12.3: Illustrating a solution sinkhole.
4. Figure 12.4: Illustrating a collapse sinkhole.
5. Figure 12.5: Illustrating a buried or filled sinkhole.
6. Figure 12.6: Illustrating a subsidence sinkhole.
7. Figure 12.7: Photograph showing a landslip.
8. Figure 12.8: Photograph showing spoil heaps as a result of mining in the Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire.
Chapter 13
1. Figure 13.1: Photograph showing dips, indicating a previous landslip.
Chapter 16
1. Figure 16.1: Theoretical pressure diagram for a wall unable to move.
2. Figure 16.2: Theoretical pressure diagram for a wall subject to rotational effects.
3. Figure 16.3: Theoretical pressure diagram for a wall subject to sliding effects.
4. Figure 16.4: Load diagrams on a retaining wall for surcharge and soil.
5. Figure 16.5: Diagram of proposed retaining wall under analysis.
6. Figure 16.6: Photograph showing a typical crib wall construction.
7. Figure 16.7: Photograph showing a gabion wall.
8. Figure 16.8: Showing the commencement of a basement structure.
Chapter 17
1. Figure 17.1: Showing steel plate to strengthen purlin.
2. Figure 17.2: Showing steel plate to strengthen a truss connection.
3. Figure 17.3: Typical arrangement of roof and ceiling joist strengthening for a loft conversion.
Chapter 18
1. Figure 18.1: A tapered subsidence joint between the line of an extension.
2. Figure 18.2: Photograph showing diagonal subsidence crack in a building.
3. Figure 18.3: Photograph of a building constructed over a well.
4. Figure 18.4: Photograph showing the loss of bearing of a beam subject to wet-rot deterioration.
5. Figure 18.5: Photograph showing overloaded column of brickwork which has failed in compression.
6. Figure 18.6: Photograph of a deflected purlin.
Chapter 19
1. Figure 19.1: The construction of a daisy wheel.
2. Figure 19.2: Construction of a geometric triangle using the daisy wheel.
3. Figure 19.3: Representation of the golden number.
4. Figure 19.4: Photograph showing a Masonic mark.
5. Figure 19.5: Photograph showing an ordnance datum bench mark.

Introduction

The intention of this publication is to embark on a journey taking the reader through a brief history of buildings, how the construction of buildings has evolved over the years and then examining in more detail the structure of buildings and their principal elements. We also examine other factors which affect the stability and structure of buildings, including ground investigations and environmental factors, and detail the materials used in their construction. Finally, we examine structural failures of buildings, their likely causes and common remedies.

This book explains some of the structural engineering principles in the design of residential dwellings and their various structural elements. Some structural theory has been included to demonstrate and reinforce understanding of the comments made. In addition, structural calculations have been included to demonstrate the key points. Diagrams and photographs add clarity.

The theoretical concepts contained in this book are equally applicable to all building structures, whether commercial, traditional or modern. To emphasise some of the issues raised, large examples such as castles and churches are used, which clearly demonstrate the building science and technology.

It must be understood from the onset that specialist structural advice should be sought before undertaking any alterations, or in the identification of structural failures and defects. This book attempts to provide some guidance on understanding the behaviour and construction of buildings, but should not be taken as an exhaustive text.

Health and Safety

It must be recognised that the building and construction industry can be a hazardous environment in which to work, and each individual has responsibility to minimise the risks to both themselves and others.

There is legislative framework which ensures that everyone involved in the commissioning of works, the design, construction and maintenance of building structures has clearly defined responsibilities for health and safety. It is essential that you are aware of your responsibilities under the legislation to reduce risks and prevent accidents. The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 places responsibilities on contractors, members of the public, clients and construction workers, and is enforced by the Health and Safety Executive.

The Construction Design and Management Regulations 2015 (CDM) place further responsibilities on clients, contractors and designers. Under Regulation 9, a designer must not commence works in relation to a project unless the client is aware of his/her responsibilities. The responsibilities are different for commercial and domestic clients. For domestic clients, unless the designer has a written agreement, the responsibilities must be carried out by the contractor and if more than one contractor is engaged on a project then the client must appoint a principal contractor. This does not mean that the regulations do not have to be carried out, but merely places the responsibilities on another duty holder. The client always has the responsibility for ensuring all pre-construction information is available.

Commercial clients have responsibility for ensuring a construction phase plan is drawn up by the contractor, and that the principal designer prepares a health and safety file for the project. This is undertaken by another duty holder if the client is domestic.

Commercial clients also ensure that management arrangements are in place for health, safety and welfare. The regulations make it clear that clients are accountable for their decisions and the approach they have in regard to the health, safety and welfare of the project.

The client is responsible for the submission of a notice to the Health and Safety Executive subject to the responsibility being undertaken by another duty holder, and with the criteria set out below.

Projects are notifiable to the Health and Safety Executive if the construction work on a construction site is scheduled to:

Last longer than 30 working days and have more than 20 workers working simultaneously at any point in the project. Or
Exceed 500 person-days.

Works may include alterations, maintenance, construction and demolition.

The activities that are defined as domestic works require consideration as the client dictates the classification, for example works can be undertaken on a residential dwelling but if these are undertaken by a private landlord or someone engaged in property development, they would be defined as commercial activity and not domestic works because they relate to a trade or business.

Although in the case of a domestic client regulations 4(1) to (7) and 6 must be carried out by another duty holder, the client still has responsibilities under the regulations. If the domestic client fails to make the necessary appointments under regulation 5, the client’s responsibilities are then passed on to other duty holders.

Ignorance of the legislation is no protection against prosecution, and professionals have been prosecuted for not informing clients of their responsibilities under this legislation. Further information is available from the Health and Safety Executive website. Clients, contractors and designers who are in any doubt about their responsibilities are strongly advised to check with the appropriate body or seek professional advice.

Building Regulations, Listed Buildings and Planning Consent

It is also important to recognise that works undertaken on buildings may be subject to other conditions and restraints.

All works must be compliant with the Building Act 1984 and Building Regulations 2010, Local Authority Planning Conditions, Listed Building Consents and Building Regulation Approvals. These should be checked via your Local Authority before embarking on any works. Other legislation may also apply to the proposed works, such as the Wildlife and Country Act 1981 and the Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2010. This legislation makes it an offence to disturb certain species such as bats, and licensed ecologists are required to provide advice.

There are many factors and considerations that may affect the proposed works, and for this reason it is always wise to seek competent professional advice.