Table of Contents

Cover

Series

Title

List of Figures and Tables

Preface

Part I: Language and the Language Faculty

Chapter 1: From Language to Linguistics
1. 1.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 1.2 LANGUAGES
3. 1.3 OTHER LANGUAGES
4. 1.4 DIFFERENCES
5. 1.5 LINGUISTICS
6. 1.6 DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAMMAR
7. 1.7 THE CONTENTS OF THIS BOOK AND THE SUBFIELDS OF LINGUISTICS
8. SUMMARY
9. ASSIGNMENTS
10. TEST YOURSELF
11. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING
Chapter 2: The Language User
1. 2.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 2.2 KNOWLEDGE AND ABILITY: THE COGNITIVE SYSTEM
3. 2.3 LANGUAGE AND THE BRAIN
4. 2.4 LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION
5. 2.5 LANGUAGE PRODUCTION
6. SUMMARY
7. ASSIGNMENTS
8. TEST YOURSELF
9. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING
Chapter 3: Language Acquisition
1. 3.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 3.2 HOW DO CHILDREN ACQUIRE LANGUAGE?
3. 3.3 THE ORDER OF FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
4. 3.4 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE ACQUISITION OF A SECOND LANGUAGE
5. 3.5 THE ORDER OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
6. 3.6 BILINGUAL DEVELOPMENT
7. Summary
8. ASSIGNMENTS
9. TEST YOURSELF
10. Acknowledgments and Further Reading

Part II: Language and Interaction

Chapter 4: Discourse
1. 4.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 4.2 INTERPRETATION AND INFERENCE
3. 4.3 COOPERATION
4. 4.4 CONVERSATIONS
5. 4.5 COHERENCE THROUGH LINGUISTIC FORM
6. SUMMARY
7. ASSIGNMENTS
8. TEST YOURSELF
9. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING
Chapter 5: Speech Acts
1. 5.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 5.2 AN UTTERANCE IS AN ACT
3. 5.3 INFORMATION STRUCTURE
4. 5.4 PRAGMATIC APPROPRIATENESS
5. SUMMARY
6. ASSIGNMENTS
7. TEST YOURSELF
8. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING

Part III: Sentences and Their Meaning

Chapter 6: Constituents and Word Classes
1. 6.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 6.2 CONSTITUENTS
3. 6.3 SENTENCES, CLAUSES AND PHRASES
4. 6.4 PHRASE TYPES
5. 6.5 HEADS AND MODIFIERS
6. 6.6 CONSTITUENT STRUCTURE
7. 6.7 PHRASES VERSUS WORDS
8. 6.8 WORD CLASSES: CONTENT WORDS
9. 6.9 WORD CLASSES: FUNCTION WORDS
10. SUMMARY
11. ASSIGNMENTS
12. TEST YOURSELF
13. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING
Chapter 7: Simple Sentences
1. 7.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 7.2 FUNCTIONS OF PHRASES WITHIN THE SENTENCE
3. 7.3 VALENCY
4. 7.4 SEMANTIC ROLES
5. 7.5 GRAMMATICAL ROLES
6. 7.6 THE MARKING OF SEMANTIC AND GRAMMATICAL ROLES
7. 7.7 REDUCTION OF VALENCY
8. 7.8 REFLEXIVE CONSTRUCTIONS
9. 7.9 PRONOMINALISATION
10. SUMMARY
11. ASSIGNMENTS
12. TEST YOURSELF
13. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING
Chapter 8: Complex Sentences
1. 8.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 8.2 THE FUNCTIONS OF EMBEDDED CLAUSES
3. 8.3 THE FORMS OF EMBEDDED CLAUSES
4. 8.4 INTERACTION BETWEEN MAIN CLAUSE AND EMBEDDED CLAUSE
5. 8.5 COORDINATED CLAUSES
6. 8.6 THE FORM OF COORDINATED CLAUSES
7. SUMMARY
8. ASSIGNMENTS
9. TEST YOURSELF
10. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING
Chapter 9: Constituent Order
1. 9.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 9.2 CONSTITUENT ORDER AND LEVELS OF ANALYSIS
3. 9.3 CONSTITUENT ORDER AT THE SENTENCE LEVEL
4. 9.4 CLAUSE TYPE
5. 9.5 EMBEDDED CLAUSES
6. 9.6 COMPLEXITY
7. 9.7 THE INFORMATION STATUS OF CONSTITUENTS
8. 9.8 CONSTITUENT ORDER WITHIN CONSTITUENTS
9. 9.9 CORRELATIONS
10. 9.10 DISCONTINUOUS CONSTITUENTS
11. SUMMARY
12. ASSIGNMENTS
13. TEST YOURSELF
14. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING
Chapter 10: Sentence Meaning
1. 10.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 10.2 COMPOSITIONALITY
3. 10.3 NOUN PPHRASES: REFERENCE
4. 10.4 NOUN PHRASES: DEIXIS AND ANAPHORA
5. 10.5 VERB PHRASES: TENSE AND ASPECT
6. 10.6 VERB PHRASES: SITUATION TYPES
7. SUMMARY
8. ASSIGNMENTS
9. TEST YOURSELF
10. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING

Part IV: Words and Their Meaning

Chapter 11: Lexicon
1. 11.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 11.2 WHAT IS A WORD?
3. 11.3 THE RELATION BETWEEN WORD FORM AND MEANING
4. 11.4 CONTENT WORDS AND FUNCTION WORDS
5. 11.5 THE LEXICON
6. 11.6 KINDS OF LEXICAL INFORMATION
7. 11.7 DICTIONARIES
8. 11.8 MEANING AND MEANING RELATIONS
9. 11.9 SEMANTIC DESCRIPTION
10. 11.10 WORDS ACROSS LANGUAGES
11. SUMMARY
12. ASSIGNMENTS
13. TEST YOURSELF
14. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING
Chapter 12: Word Formation
1. 12.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 12.2 THE INTERNAL COMPOSITION OF WORDS
3. 12.3 THE FUNCTIONS OF WORD FORMATION
4. 12.4 DERIVATION
5. 12.5 INFLECTION
6. 12.6 MORPHOLOGICAL FORMS
7. 12.7 THE STRUCTURE OF WORDS AND THEIR MEANINGS
8. 12.8 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DERIVATION AND INFLECTION
9. 12.9 MORPHOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LANGUAGES
10. SUMMARY
11. ASSIGNMENTS
12. TEST YOURSELF
13. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING
Chapter 13: Compounds and Idiomatic Expressions
1. 13.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 13.2 STRUCTURE AND MEANING OF COMPOUNDS
3. 13.3 TYPES OF COMPOUNDS
4. 13.4 INCORPORATION
5. 13.5 IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS
6. 13.6 THE MEANING OF IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS
7. SUMMARY
8. ASSIGNMENTS
9. TEST YOURSELF
10. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING

Part V: Speech Sounds

Chapter 14: Speaking and Listening – Speech Sounds
1. 14.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 14.2 SPEAKING
3. 14.3 THE SPEECH SIGNAL
4. 14.4 HEARING AND UNDERSTANDING
5. 14.5 SPEECH SOUNDS
6. 14.6 SPEECH SYNTHESIS AND SPEECH RECOGNITION
7. SUMMARY
8. ASSIGNMENTS
9. TEST YOURSELF
10. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING
Chapter 15: Sound Systems and Phonological Processes
1. 15.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 15.2 DISTINCTIVENESS
3. 15.3 SOUND SYSTEMS
4. 15.4 DISTINCTIVE FEATURES
5. 15.5 MORPHOPHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES
6. 15.6 GRAPHEMES AND PHONEMES
7. SUMMARY
8. ASSIGNMENTS
9. TEST YOURSELF
10. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING
Chapter 16: Syllables, Stress and Intonation
1. 16.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 16.2 THE SYLLABLE: PHONOTACTICS
3. 16.3 THE WORD: STRESS
4. 16.4 THE SENTENCE: INTONATION
5. 16.5 RHYTHM
6. SUMMARY
7. ASSIGNMENTS
8. TEST YOURSELF
9. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING

Part VI: Languages and Communities

Chapter 17: Differences and Similarities between Languages
1. 17.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 17.2 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN LANGUAGES
3. 17.3 GENETIC RELATIONS
4. 17.4 LANGUAGE AND CULTURE
5. 17.5 LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT: THE SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESIS
6. SUMMARY
7. ASSIGNMENTS
8. TEST YOURSELF
9. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING
Chapter 18: Language Variation
1. 18.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 18.2 WHAT IS A LANGUAGE?
3. 18.3 WHAT IS A DIALECT?
4. 18.4 THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE VARIATION
5. 18.5 LANGUAGE VARIATION AND SOCIAL FACTORS
6. 18.6 OTHER FACTORS: SITUATION AND LINGUISTIC CONTEXT
7. 18.7 LANGUAGE VARIATION AND SOCIAL MEANING
8. SUMMARY
9. ASSIGNMENTS
10. TEST YOURSELF
11. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING
Chapter 19: Language Change
1. 19.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 19.2 HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS
3. 19.3 THE PROCESS OF CHANGE
4. 19.4 THE ROLE OF SOCIAL GROUPS IN LANGUAGE CHANGE
5. 19.5 EMBEDDING CHANGES INTO THE LANGUAGE SYSTEM
6. 19.6 THE EVALUATION OF LANGUAGE CHANGE
7. SUMMARY
8. ASSIGNMENTS
9. TEST YOURSELF
10. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING
Chapter 20: Bilingualism
1. 20.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 20.2 THE BILINGUAL COMMUNITY
3. 20.3 LANGUAGE POLICY
4. 20.4 BILINGUAL EDUCATION
5. 20.5 THE BILINGUAL INDIVIDUAL
6. 20.6 BILINGUALISM AND INTERFERENCE
7. 20.7 THE EMERGENCE OF NEW LANGUAGES
8. SUMMARY
9. ASSIGNMENTS
10. TEST YOURSELF
11. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND FURTHER READING

References

Sources of Illustrations

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 6: Constituents and Word Classes

Table 6.1 Types of phrases

Chapter 8: Complex Sentences

Table 8.1 Various types of embedded clauses and their functions

Chapter 9: Constituent Order

Table 9.1 Constituent order correlations

Chapter 11: Lexicon

Table 11.1 The short version of the Swadesh list

Chapter 16: Syllables, Stress and Intonation

Table 16.1 Fixed stress positions with examples

Chapter 18: Language Variation

Table 18.1 Scores for the variable ‘verbal morpheme -ing’ across five social groups in Norwich (Britain)
Table 18.2 Scores for the variable ‘verbal morpheme -ing of men and women in Norwich (Britain). A higher score means a more frequent use of the non-standard variant

Chapter 19: Language Change

Table 19.1 Pronunciation of the variable /r/ in words such as car and horse in 6 social classes in New York City in 1964. Five styles are distinguished from the informal style to the most formal, that is, in words in minimal pairs like guard and god. The higher the score on the (r) index, the more often (r) is pronounced.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1: From Language to Linguistics

Figure 1.1 The ‘wiggle’ dance of bees, according to Frisch (1923). Frisch, K. von (1923) Über die `Sprache' der Bienen, Jena: Gustav Fischer Verlag.

Chapter 2: The Language User

Figure 2.1 Three kinds of knowledge within the cognitive system involved in speaking and understanding.
Figure 2.2 A fragment of a possible network of connections within the mental lexicon based on meaning. (Bold lines represent stronger connections, dotted lines weaker links.)
Figure 2.3 Language areas in the left hemisphere.
Figure 2.4 fMRI scan of left (top) and right (bottom) hemispheres of (a) British Sign Language signers presented with BSL and (b) English speakers presented with spoken English. Brain activity is indicated by the light areas. MacSweeney, M., Woll, B., Campbell, R. et al. (2002) Neural systems underlying British Sign Language and audio-visual English processing in native users, Brain 125, 1583–93.
Figure 2.5 The four sub-processes for language comprehension and their relation to the cognitive system.
Figure 2.6 Elicitation picture from the Minnesota Test for Differential Diagnosis of Aphasia. Illustration taken from Card Materials for the Minnesota Test for Differential Diagnosis of Aphasia (Pack One) by Hildred Schuell and Lawrence Benson, University of Minnesota Press © 1965 University of Minnesota.
Figure 2.7 The four sub-processes of speaking in the whole system of language use.
Figure 2.8 The incremental process of language production.

Chapter 3: Language Acquisition

Figure 3.1 Mother and child. Image by Saska Leefsma.

Chapter 4: Discourse

Figure 4.1 Non-verbal behaviour in a telephone conversation (a and b): Montrul, S. `Research methods in L2 acquisition and bilingualism' 6th EMLAR (Experimental Methods in Language Acquisition Research), Utrecht, The Netherlands, February 3–5, 2010.

Chapter 5: Speech Acts

Figure 5.1 Launch of the Pathfinder, 1941. NOAA Photo Library, NOAA Central Library; Association of Commissioned Officers.
Figure 5.2 a. View of skyscrapers. b. Window in room.

Chapter 6: Constituents and Word Classes

Figure 6.1 Types of constituent (simplified version).
Figure 6.2 Types of constituent (expanded version).
Figure 6.3 Tree diagram of (44).
Figure 6.4 Tree diagram of (48).

Chapter 8: Complex Sentences

Figure 8.1 Types of constituent (final version).
Figure 8.2 Michael with a boat gone aground. Montrul, S. `Research methods in L2 acquisition and bilingualism' 6th EMLAR (Experimental Methods in Language Acquisition Research), Utrecht, The Netherlands, February 3–5, 2010.
Figure 8.3 The constituent structure of coordinated clauses.

Chapter 9: Constituent Order

Figure 9.1 Approximate distribution of Basic Constituent Orders.

Chapter 10: Sentence Meaning

Figure 10.1 Schematic representation of the different types of reference.
Figure 10.2 Different types of reference in English.
Figure 10.3 Different types of reference in Turkish.
Figure 10.4 Different types of reference in Samoan.
Figure 10.5 Use of deictic terms. Image courtesy of Esther Parriger.
Figure 10.6 The pronominal system of Tokelau.
Figure 10.7 Elicitation test picture. Montrul, S. `Research methods in L2 acquisition and bilingualism' 6th EMLAR (Experimental Methods in Language Acquisition Research), Utrecht, The Netherlands, February 3–5, 2010.
Figure 10.8 Tense in (34) (E = event time, S = moment of speaking).
Figure 10.9 Absolute and relative tense in (35) (E = event time, R = point of reference, S = moment of speaking).
Figure 10.10 Absolute and relative tense in (36) (E = event time, R = point of reference, S = moment of speaking).
Figure 10.11 Four situation types.

Chapter 11: Lexicon

Figure 11.1 Violão

Chapter 12: Word Formation

Figure 12.1 Morphological types of languages.

Chapter 13: Compounds and Idiomatic Expressions

Figure 13.1 Mixing metaphors.

Chapter 14: Speaking and Listening – Speech Sounds

Figure 14.1 Speech organs.
Figure 14.2 Atmospheric pressure produced in the pronunciation of the sentence the porter is studying linguistics for fun by an educated female speaker of British English.
Figure 14.3 Frequency (in Hz) of the sentence the porter is studying linguistics for fun pronounced by an educated female speaker of British English.
Figure 14.4 Schematic representation of the human ear.
Figure 14.5 International phonetic alphabet (adapted from IPA 2005 revision).

Chapter 15: Sound Systems and Phonological Processes

Figure 15.1 The sound system of Standard British English. The characters printed in black are the phonemes of this language.
Figure 15.2 The sound system of Rotokas. The characters printed in black are the phonemes of this language.
Figure 15.3 The sound system of Danish. The characters printed in black are the phonemes of this language.

Chapter 16: Syllables, Stress and Intonation

Figure 16.1 Distribution of fixed stress positions in a sample of 281 languages.

Chapter 17: Differences and Similarities between Languages

Figure 17.1 Cover of the grammar of an Arabic dialect written by Lucas Cauallero in 1709. Otto Zwartjes.
Figure 17.2 Relationships between some Indo-European languages.
Figure 17.3 Hawaiian kinship system.
Figure 17.4 Schematic view of division of the colour spectrum in a language.

Chapter 18: Language Variation

Figure 18.1 The generalised occurrence of the use of -s in the present tense in the English of England.Pietsch, L. (2005) Some do and some doesn't: verbal concord variation in the north of the British Isles, in Kortmann, B., Herrmann, T., Pietsch, L. and Wagner, S. (eds) A Comparative Grammar of British English Dialects: Agreement, Gender, Relative Clauses (Topics in English Linguistics, 50.1), Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 125–209.
Figure 18.2 The isogloss indicating the phonological variables Southern // vs the Northern // (solid line). The circles indicate // and the crosses //. Laver, J., (1994) Principles of Phonetics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Chapter 19: Language Change

Figure 19.1 The development of do as an auxiliary in different sentence types between 1400 and 1700. Aitchison, J. (1991) Language Change: Progress or Decay? 3rd edn, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Figure 19.2 The frequency of the use of help with and without to + infinitive between 1600 and 1990. Mark Davies mark_davies@byu.edu
Figure 19.3 Phonological change in French words ending in /n/. The horizontal axis indicates time in centuries and the vertical axis the spread over the lexicon in terms of categories of words. Aitchison, J. (1991) Language Change: Progress or Decay? 3^rd edn, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Chapter 20: Bilingualism

Figure 20.1 Model of the different types of bilingual community.
Figure 20.2 Model of a transitional bilingual programme.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Linguistics / edited by Anne E. Baker & Kees Hengeveld.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-631-23035-9 (cloth) – ISBN 978-0-631-23036-6 (pbk.)
1. Linguistics. I. Baker, Anne, linguistics professor 1948–. II. Hengeveld, Kees, linguistics professor 1957–
P121.L568 2012
410–dc23
2011036309

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

List of Figures and Tables

Figures
1.1	The ‘wiggle’ dance of bees, according to Frisch (1923).
2.1	Three kinds of knowledge within the cognitive system involved in speaking and understanding.
2.2	A fragment of a possible network of connections within the mental lexicon based on meaning.
2.3	Language areas in the left hemisphere.
2.4	fMRI scan of left (top) and right (bottom) hemispheres of (a) English speakers presented with spoken English and (b) British Sign Language signers presented with BSL. Brain activity is indicated by the light areas.
2.5	The four sub-processes for language comprehension and their relation to the cognitive system.
2.6	Elicitation picture from the Minnesota Test for Differential Diagnosis of Aphasia.
2.7	The four sub-processes of speaking in the whole system of language use.
2.8	The incremental process of language production.
3.1	Mother and child.
4.1	Non-verbal behaviour in a telephone conversation.
5.1	Launch of the Pathfinder, 1941.
5.2	a. View of skyscrapers. b. Window in room.
6.1	Types of constituent (simplified version).
6.2	Types of constituent (expanded version).
6.3	Tree diagram of (44).
6.4	Tree diagram of (48).
8.1	Types of constituent (final version).
8.2	Michael with a boat gone aground.
8.3	The constituent structure of coordinated clauses.
9.1	Approximate distribution of Basic Constituent Orders.
10.1	Schematic representation of the different types of reference.
10.2	Different types of reference in English.
10.3	Different types of reference in Turkish.
10.4	Different types of reference in Samoan.
10.5	Use of deictic terms.
10.6	The pronominal system of Tokelau.
10.7	Elicitation test picture.
10.8	Tense in (34).
10.9	Absolute and relative tense in (35).
10.10	Absolute and relative tense in (36).
10.11	Four situation types.
11.1	Violão
12.1	Morphological types of languages.
13.1	Mixing metaphors.
14.1	Speech organs.
14.2	Atmospheric pressure produced in the pronunciation of the sentence the porter is studying linguistics for fun by an educated female speaker of British English.
14.3	Frequency (in Hz) of the sentence the porter is studying linguistics for fun pronounced by an educated female speaker of British English.
14.4	Schematic representation of the human ear.
14.5	International phonetic alphabet (adapted from IPA 2005 revision).
15.1	The sound system of Standard British English.
15.2	The sound system of Rotokas.
15.3	The sound system of Danish.
16.1	Distribution of fixed stress positions in a sample of 281 languages.
17.1	Cover of Lucas Cauallero.
17.2	Relationships between some Indo-European languages.
17.3	Hawaiian kinship system.
17.4	Schematic view of division of the colour spectrum in a language.
18.1	The generalised occurrence of the use of -s in the present tense in the English of England.
18.2	The isogloss indicating the phonological variables Southern // vs the Northern // (solid line). The circles indicate // and the crosses //.
19.1	The development of do as an auxiliary in different sentence types between 1400 and 1700.
19.2	The frequency of the use of help with and without to + infinitive between 1600 and 1990.
19.3	Phonological change in French words ending in /n/. The horizontal axis indicates time in centuries and the vertical axis the spread over the lexicon in terms of categories of words.
20.1	Model of the different types of bilingual community.
20.2	Model of a transitional bilingual programme.
Tables
6.1	Types of phrases
8.1	Various types of embedded clauses and their functions
9.1	Constituent order correlations
11.1	The short version of the Swadesh list
16.1	Fixed stress patterns with examples
18.1	Scores for the variable ‘verbal morpheme -ing’ across five social groups in Norwich (Britain)
18.2	Scores for the variable ‘verbal morpheme -ing’ of men and women in Norwich (Britain)
19.1	Pronunciation of the variable /r/ in words such as car and horse in 6 social classes in New York City in 1964

Preface

This introduction to the field of Linguistics offers a broad survey of the discipline. The book is intended first of all for students of language, but it is also suitable for others who want to know more about modern linguistics. It testifies to the enormous richness of natural languages and shows this richness with illustrations from a great many different languages.

Linguistics is intended in the first place for use in education. To this end, the most important linguistic terms are given in bold when they first occur in the text. These terms have also been included in the index, and are repeated in the summaries at the end of each chapter. Each summary is followed by a range of assignments suitable for developing further the subject studied in the chapter. After these assignments students can test themselves to see whether they have sufficiently mastered the key concepts and principles in the chapter. At the end of each chapter, sources of information, examples and other materials are acknowledged, and suggestions for further reading given.

Linguistics is the product of a team of linguists working in the Department of Linguistics of the University of Amsterdam. The book is a revision and English adaptation of Appel et al. (eds) (2002), which itself incorporated parts of Appel et al. (1992). Appel et al. (1992) was edited by René Appel, Simon Dik and Pieter Muysken, while Appel et al. (eds) (2002) was edited by René Appel, Anne Baker, Kees Hengeveld, Folkert Kuiken and Pieter Muysken. “The English translation was made by Professor Reinier Salverda (Dutch Department, University College London) and formed the basis of our subsequent editing work”. The responsibility for the various chapters shifted over the two editions mentioned above. The table below indicates which authors wrote the earlier versions of the various chapters.

Chapter	1992 author	2002 author
1. From Language to Linguistics	Simon Dik, Pieter Muysken	Anne Baker
2. The Language User	Rob Schoonen	Ron Prins, Rob Schoonen
3. Language Acquisition	Anne Baker, René Appel	Folkert Kuiken
4. Discourse	René Appel	Sies de Haan
5. Speech Acts	René Appel	Sies de Haan
6. Constituents and Word Classes	Simon Dik, Pieter Muysken	Kees Hengeveld
7. Simple Sentences	Simon Dik	Kees Hengeveld
8. Complex Sentences	–	Kees Hengeveld
9. Constituent Order	–	Kees Hengeveld
10. Sentence Meaning	Pieter Muysken	Sies de Haan
11. Lexicon	Pieter Muysken	Casper de Groot
12. Word Formation	Pieter Muysken	Casper de Groot
13. Compounds and Idiomatic Expressions	–	Casper de Groot
14. Speaking and Understanding – Speech Sounds	Norval Smith	Louis Pols
15. Sound Systems and Phonological Processes	Norval Smith	Norval Smith
16. Syllables, Stress and Intonation	Norval Smith	Norval Smith
17. Differences and Similarities between Languages	René Appel	Pieter Muysken
18. Language Variation	René Appel	Pieter Muysken
19. Language Change	René Appel, Pieter Muysken	Pieter Muysken
20. Bilingualism	René Appel	Pieter Muysken

A great many readers and users sent us their comments on the earlier versions, and we greatly benefited from these for the current edition. We thank them all very much. We are also very grateful to the anonymous reviewers who provided us with many helpful comments on the pre-final version of this book. Specifically we wish to thank a number of colleagues for their checking of examples: Titia Benders, Ying Lin, Bibi Janssen and Wim Honselaar. Finally we are indebted to Gerdien Kerssies and Kirsten Smorenberg for their contribution to the technical production of the book.

Amsterdam, November 2011
Anne Baker, Kees Hengeveld

Part I
Language and the Language Faculty

Humans generally communicate with each other by means of language. In this respect they are very different from other animals. Human language has a number of specific properties that set it apart from other communication systems. Chapter 1 of this book, From Language to Linguistics, discusses these properties of human language, explains how they are studied in linguistics, and what sort of phenomena will be covered in this book.

When we say that humans know a language, this means effectively that they have mentally stored a large amount of knowledge about the language and how it is used. Operating as speakers and hearers, they can employ their language faculty in actual language use. In Chapter 2, The Language User, we will discuss how this works and review the mental processes that play a role here.

But the knowledge of a language is not present from the beginning. Children have to acquire their first language and adults also sometimes learn one or more other languages later. This is the theme of Chapter 3, Language Acquisition.

1 Andrew Spencer	Phonology
2 John I. Saeed	Semantics, Third Edition
3 Barbara Johnstone	Discourse Analysis, Second Edition
4 Andrew Carnie	Syntax, Second Edition
5 Anne Baker and Kees Hengeveld	Linguistics