Contents
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chocolate Team (1998–2009)
PART I Beginnings and Religion
CHAPTER 1: Cacao Use in Yucatán Among the Pre-Hispanic Maya
Introduction
The Role of Cacao in the Northern Maya Area
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 2: Tempest in a Chocolate Pot
Introduction
Origin of the Word Cacao
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 3: Ancient Gods and Christian Celebrations
Introduction
How Cacao Came to Humans
Contemporary Mayan Ritual Uses of Cacao
Arrival of Christianity
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 4: Chocolate and Sinful Behaviors
Introduction
Chocolate and the Inquisition
Inquisition Case Records
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 5: Nation of Nowhere
Introduction
The Nation of Nowhere
NEW LANDS: THE WEST INDIES, VENEZUELA, AND BRAZIL
Colonial America
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
PART II Medicine and Recipes
CHAPTER 6: Medicinal Chocolate in New Spain, Western Europe, and North America
Introduction
Medicinal Chocolate: Indigenous and Early New World Accounts
Chocolate and Medicine in North America: A Sampling of Themes
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 7: Chocolate and the Boston Smallpox Epidemic of 1764
Introduction
Chocolate and Smallpox Treatment in 18th Century North America
Smallpox in Boston
CONCLUDING COMMENTS ON CHOCOLATE AND 1764 SMALLPOX EPIDEMIC
Acknowledgments
CHATPER 8 From Bean to Beverage
Introduction
Chocolate Recipes
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 9: Chocolate as Medicine
Introduction
Cookbooks
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
PART III Serving and Advertising
CHAPTER 10: Chocolate Preparation and Serving Vessels in Early North America
Introduction
Preparing Chocolate
Chocolate Pots
Chocolate Drinking in the 19th century
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 11: Silver Chocolate Pots of Colonial Boston1
Introduction
The Boston Chocolate Pots
The “Excellent Nectar”
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 12: Is It A Chocolate Pot?
Introduction: The Chocolatière and the Refinement of Aristocratic Manners in Early Modern France
The Function of the Chocolatière
Chocolatières in Precious and Other Metals
Chocolatières in Porcelain
Chocolatières and Portraiture, 18th Century France
Decline and Renewal: The French Revolution and After
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 13: Commercial Chocolate Pots
Introduction
Findings
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 14: Role of Trade Cards in Marketing Chocolate During the Late 19th Century
Introduction
Trade Cards
Potent Pictures
The Promise
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 15: Commercial Chocolate Posters
Introduction
Findings
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 16: Chocolate at the World’s Fairs, 1851–1964
Introduction
Discovering the Botany and Agriculture of Cacao
Discovering the Taste of Chocolate
Creating Corporate Identity
The Architecture of Chocolate
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
PART IV Economics, Education, and Crime
CHAPTER 17: Pirates, Prizes, and Profits
Introduction
Shipping News Documents
Research Methodology
Results
Links to Modern Commodity Research
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 18: How Much Is That Cocoa in the Window?
Introduction
Price Information: Cautions and Caveats
Research Methodology
Descriptive Statistics
Results
Purchase Choices Available to a “Representative Adult Male”
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 19: C” Is for Chocolate
Introduction
Education Materials
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 20: Chocolate, Crime, and the Courts
Introduction
The Old Bailey Trial Archive (London)
Analysis and Commentary
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 21: Dark Chocolate
Introduction
Chocolate–Associated Crimes
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
PART V Colonial and Federal Eras (Part 1)
CHAPTER 22: Chocolate and Other Colonial Beverages
Introduction
Alcoholic Beverages
Nonalcoholic Beverages
Hot Liquors
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 23: Chocolate Production and Uses in 17th and 18th Century North America
Introduction
Food of the Gods and Turmoil in the Caribbean
American Production and Manufacturing
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 24: Chocolate’s Early History in Canada
Introduction
L’arbre qui s’apelle cacau: Chocolate’s Earliest Connection to Canada
"Chocolate—Here Made”—Early English Settlement in Canada
“To Be Sold Cheap for Ready Money”—Early Canadian Chocolate Advertisements
“Our Only Spark of Comfort”: Chocolate in Canadian Exploration, Fur Trade, and Early Arctic Voyages
Aboriginal Encounters with Chocolate
Strength to the Whole System”: Chocolate and Cocoa Manufacture in Canada
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 25: A Necessary Luxury
Introduction
Louisbourg in New France
Les Compagnies Franches de la Marine and Chocolate
Louisbourg Society and Chocolate
From Martinique to Louisbourg: The Colonial Trade of Chocolate
Maritime War: Chocolate Prizes
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 26: Chocolate Manufacturing and Marketing in Massachusetts, 1700–1920
Introduction
Small-Scale, Individualized Colonial Chocolate Use
Increased Trade Prior to Revolution
Revolution
The First American Large-Scale Chocolate Works
Chocolate: Beginning of Mass Production and Consumption in New England
Walter Baker and the Marketing Revolution of the Mid-19th Century
Reform, Health, and the Civil War
Turn-of-the-Century Mass Marketing to “Proper” American Women and Men
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 27: Boston Chocolate
Introduction
Boston Chocolate
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
PART VI Colonial and Federal Eras (Part 2)
CHAPTER 28: Dutch Cacao Trade in New Netherland During the 17th and 18th Centuries
Introduction
Trade
Artifacts
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 29: Chocolate Consumption and Production in New York’s Upper Hudson River Valley, 1730–1830
Introduction
Early Consumption of Chocolate in the Upper Hudson Valley
Chocolate Manufacturing in Albany
Acknowledgments
Endnotes
CHAPTER 30: Chocolate Makers in 18th Century Pennsylvania
Introduction
Quakers
Mary Keen Crathorne Roker of Philadelphia
A Look Inside a Mill
STEP ONE: ROASTING
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 31: Breakfasting on Chocolate
Introduction
Chocolate in Hospitality and Diplomacy
Supplying the Armies with Chocolate
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 32: Chocolate and North American Whaling Voyages
Introduction
Whaling and Chocolate
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
PART VII Southeast/Southwest Borderlands and California
CHAPTER 33: Blood, Conflict, and Faith
Introduction
Spanish Florida
Southwest Borderlands (Arizona, New Mexico, Texas)
Era of Political Transition and Independent Mexico
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 34: Sailors, Soldiers, and Padres
Introduction
Cacao and Chocolate in California
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 35: From Gold Bar to Chocolate Bar
Introduction
Before the Gold Rush
Chocolate and the Gold Rush
Ghirardelli and Guittard Put California Chocolate on the Map
Diffusion and Diversity in California Chocolate in the Second Half of the 19th Century
Milk Chocolate, Refrigeration, and the Bar
Acknowledgments
PART VIII Caribbean and South America
CHAPTER 36: Caribbean Cocoa
Introduction
Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Cocoa Planting in the Caribbean
Cocoa Producers
Technological Changes
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 37: Caribbean Chocolate
Introduction
Chocolate and Its Medicinal Properties
Methods of Preparation
Institutional Use of Cocoa
Manufacturing
The Caribbean Cocoa Trade
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 38: History of Cacao Cultivation and Chocolate Consumption in Cuba
Introduction
Cuban Cacao and Chocolate: The Beginnings
Nineteenth Century Developments
Cacao Production
Chocolate and Chocolate Making in Travelers’Accounts
Cacao and Chocolate During the Mid-19th Century
Consequences of the Independence Wars and the First Cuban Republic
The 20th Century
Chocolate in Cuba After 1959
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 39: History of Cacao and Chocolate in Cuban Literature, Games, Music, and Culinary Arts
Introduction
Cocoa and Chocolate in Cuban Literature and Proverbs
Chocolate in Cuban Games and Music
Cuba Culinary Traditions
Cacao and Chocolate in Contemporary Cuban Cookbooks
Traditional Medicinal Uses of Cacao
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 40: Establishing Cacao Plantation Culture in the Atlantic World
Introduction
Cultivation in Brazil
Cacao as a Medicinal Plant
Missionaries, Native Americans, and Wild Cacao Collection in the Amazon
An Early Attempt to Transplant Cacao to Portuguese Colonies Outside Brazil
Cacao Plantations and Production in Bahia
The Portuguese and Cacao in São Tomé: Early Introduction of Cacao from Brazil
Transplanting the Cacao Plantation System from Brazil to West Africa
Finding Laborers: Contracts and Convicts from Cape Verde, Angola, and Mozambique
Rhythms of Work on Portuguese Colonial Cacao Plantations
Controversy Over Labor and The British Boycott
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
PART IX Europe and Asia
CHAPTER 41: Cure or Confection?
Introduction
Royal Chocolatier: Confectioner and Pharmacy Technician
Expansion of Brazilian Cacao Production and Consumption Within the Empire
Chocolate as a Recuperative Foodstuff in Portuguese Colonial Hospitals
Chocolate and the Portuguese Royal Court in the 18 th and 19 th Centuries
Images of Portuguese Elites’ Chocolate Consumption in the 18 th and 19 th Centuries
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 42: Chocolate in France
Introduction: Chocolate Comes to France
Chocolate Enters French Culture
Chocolate’s Democratization
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 43: Commerce, Colonies, and Cacao
Introduction: The English Adopt Chocolate
Cacao, Colonization, and Clubs
Chocolate Penetrates English Culture
Joseph Fry and Fraud in Chocolate
Chocolate and the Struggle for Empire: Fighting the Americans and the French
Beginnings of the Industrialization of Chocolate Production
The Modern Era: Fry, Cadbury, and the Chocolate Bar
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 44: Chinese Chocolate
Introduction: Chocolate in China … An Untold Story
Jesuits and Franciscans
How Chocolate Came to China
Chinese Chocolate Export Ware
Chinese Chocolate in 19th Century French Texts
Chocolate and China to the Coming of the Bar
Acknowledgments
PART X Production, Manufacturing, and Contemporary Activities
CHAPTER 45: Cacao, Haciendas, and the Jesuits
Introduction
Presentation of the Documents
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 46: From Stone Metates to Steel Mills
Introduction: The Early Evolution of Chocolate Manufacturing
Chocolate Manufacturing, 1700–1850
Chocolate Manufacturing, 1850–1900
Chocolate Manufacturing in the 1900s
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 47: Adulteration
Introduction
Animal Adulterants
Vegetal Adulterants
Mineral Adulterants
Perspectives on Chocolate Adulteration
Defining Chocolate
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 48: Making Colonial Era Chocolate
Introduction
Why Make Chocolate?
Importance of Background Research
The Hand–Grinding Process
Is Making Chocolate Worth the Effort?
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 49: American Heritage Chocolate
Introduction
Background Research
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 50: Twenty-First Century Attitudes and Behaviors Regarding the Medicinal Use of Chocolate
Introduction
Objectives
Methods
Results
Future Research
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
PART XI Fieldwork, Methodology, and Interpretation
CHAPTER 51: Symbols from Ancient Times
Introduction
Methods
Background to the St. Augustine Documents
Introduction to the St. Augustine Documents: Summation of Events
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 52: Digging for Chocolate in Charleston and Savannah
Introduction
Data Collection
Chocolate in Charleston
Search for Chocolate in Savannah
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 53: Management of Cacao and Chocolate Data
Introduction
Organization and Types of Information Within the CRP
Motivations, Guiding Principles, and Design Challenges
Techniques Used to Build the Chocolate Research Portal
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Recommended Readings
CHAPTER 54: Base Metal Chocolate Pots In North America
Introduction
Base Metal Chocolate Pots: Description and Analysis
FORMS
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 55: Blue and Gray Chocolate
Introduction
Eyewitness and Firsthand Accounts, 1860–1865
Postwar Memories
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 56: Chocolate Futures
Introduction
Chocolate Futures
Expanded Geographical Coverage
Potential Thematic Coverage Opportunities
Conclusion
Epilogue
Acknowledgments
Appendices
CHAPTER 58
CHAPTER 59
CHAPTER 60
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 61
CHAPTER 62
CHAPTER 63
CHAPTER 64
CHAPTER 65
CHAPTER 66
1700–1800
1600–1699
1500—1599
CHAPTER 67
Lipids
Protein and Amino Acids
Carbohydrate
Vitamins and Minerals
Other Components
Conclusion
CHAPTER 68
Index
Copyright
© 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All right reserved
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Grivetti, Louis.
Chocolate : history, culture, and heritage / Louis Evan Grivetti, Howard-Yana Shapiro.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-470-12165-8 (cloth)
1. Chocolate–History. I. Shapiro, Howard-Yana. II. Title.
TX767.C5G747 2009
641.3'374–dc22
2008041834
To our parents and wives:
Blanche Irene Carpenter Grivetti
Rex Michael Grivetti
Georgette Stylanos Mayerakis Grivetti
Pesche Minke Shapiro
Yankel Shapiro
Nancy J. Shapiro
Foreword
The Portuguese poet Fernando Pessoa had the right idea when he wrote early in the last century “Look, there’s no metaphysics on earth like chocolate.” Chocolate is a substance long regarded as magical, even supernatural, not to mention salubrious, today for its heart-healthy properties, yesterday because of a solid medicinal reputation as well as an aphrodisiacal one. Chocolate begins as seeds in a pod, that pod the fruit of the cacao tree Theobroma cacao. Not incidentally, the scientific name means “drink of the gods,” by way of continuing the metaphysical.
Until relatively recently nobody gave much thought to eating chocolate. Drink was its original use and, despite evidence of an Amazonian origin, Mesoamericans were probably its original users. Cacao was employed in ancient Maya ceremonies and rituals and later used in religious rites to keep alive the memory of Quezalcoatl, the god of the air who made earthly visits from time to time dispensing instructions on how to grow various foods, cacao among them. In addition cacao nibs (the almond-shaped seeds) were put to work as coins so that by the time the Europeans sailed into the New World cacao was well entrenched in all facets of Mesoamerican life: spiritual, nutritional, and financial.
The European phase of cacao’s history dates from 1502 when Columbus, then in the Gulf of Honduras on his forth voyage encountered natives who gave him the drink xocoatl made of cacao, honey, spices, and vanilla. The Explorer carried some nibs back to Spain, where they were viewed as curiosities only and it took another introduction in 1528 by Hernando Cortés (the conqueror of Mexico) to establish the plant in Iberia. Before long the Spaniards had figured out how to turn the nibs into an agreeable drink and by 1580 cocoa had achieved widespread popularity among Spain’s elite and its cacao plantations became sources of considerable wealth. As sugar grew cheaper and more readily available in the seventeenth century, chocolate spread across Europe, chocolate houses sprang up and cocoa, although expensive, was charming everyone who could afford it. Doubtless, part of that charm resided in its alleged aphrodisiac properties, and chocolate found its way into confections and was tinkered with as candy.
An international phase of chocolate history was launched in 1819, when the first eating chocolate was produced in Switzerland. In the following decade Cadbury ’s Chocolate Company opened in England, the Baker Chocolate Company in the United States, a Dutch chocolate maker produced the world’s first chocolate candy, and an instant cocoa powder was invented. The commercial chocolate industry was born.
If there is little passion in my nutshell early history of chocolate, the same is not true of the pages that follow. They reflect the energy and enthusiasm of the chocolate history research group established at the University of California at Davis a decade ago with the backing of Mars, Incorporated. Led by Professor Louis Grivetti, its members have investigated myriad aspects of chocolate history and have generated mountains of materials. Nonetheless, the editors explain that their intention has not been to produce a full history of chocolate, which would have taken many more years to complete. Instead, what they have done is to assemble a veritable archive of the subject in 56 chapters and 10 appendices for which food historians will be forever grateful.
The chapters are wide ranging and head in whatever directions their authors’expertise and curiosity dictate. Within this work they are organized roughly chronologically as well as geographically and topically, so that they begin with pre-Maya cacao use and contain in the penultimate chapter searches for chocolate references made during the American Civil War. Medicinal application is a recurring theme and one chapter examines twenty-first century attitudes about such uses. Chocolate pots for serving are given considerable space and five chapters are devoted to cacao and chocolate in the Caribbean with another to cacao production in Brazil and West Africa.
The final chapter scouts new terrain for future chocolate research with the appendices intended to help in this regard by disclosing archives, libraries, museums, other institutions, and digitized resources consulted in this effort. Some 99 chocolate-associated quotations are provided, as is a chocolate timeline and an important discussion of early written works on chocolate. Finally, there is a brief discussion of the nutritional properties of cocoa.
All of this may not constitute a full history of chocolate but it comes close. This work is both a major contribution to the field and to a growing body of food-history literature.
Kenneth F. Kiple
Preface
To study the history of chocolate is to embark upon an extraordinary journey through time and geographical space. The chocolate story spans a vast period from remote antiquity through the 21st century. Historical evidence for chocolate use appears on all continents and in all climes, from tropical rain forests to the icy reaches of the Arctic and Antarctic. The story of chocolate is associated with millions of persons, most unknown, but some notables including economists, explorers, kings, politicians, and scientists. Perhaps no other food, with the exception of wine, has evoked such curiosity regarding its beginnings, development, and global distribution. But there is a striking difference: wine is forbidden food to millions globally because of its alcohol content but chocolate can be enjoyed and savored by all.
The chocolate history group at the University of California, Davis, was formed in 1998 at the request of Mars, Incorporated. The purpose of this association was to identify chocolate-associated artifacts, documents, and manuscripts from pre-Columbian America and to trace the development and evolution of culinary and medical uses of chocolate into Europe and back to North America. Our initial activities (1998–2001) were characterized by archive/library research and on-site field work observations and interviews conducted in Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, and the United States. The primary objectives during this research period were the following:
1. Identify early medical and culinary data associated with cacao and chocolate use in the Americas and Europe.
2. Interview traditional healers and chocolate vendors in the Americas to better understand contemporary, 20th and 21st century, cultural uses of chocolate.
3. Identify indigenous, historical, and early 20th century chocolate recipes.
In 2004, the chocolate history research group was expanded after a second generous gift from Mars, Incorporated. Our team of scholars during 2004-2007 included colleagues and independent scholars affiliated with the following institutions: Albany Institute of History and Art, Albany, New York; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of History, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; California Parks System, Sacramento, California; Department of Ethnic Studies, California State University, San Luis Obispo, California; Colonial Deerfield, Deerfield, Massachusetts; Colonial Williamsburg, Williamsburg, Virginia; Center for Anthropology, University of Havana, Cuba; Department of Art History, East Los Angeles Community College, Los Angeles, California; Florida Institute for Hieroglyphic Research, Palmetto, Florida; Fort Ticonderoga, Ticonderoga, New York; Fortress Louisbourg, Nova Scotia, Canada; Harokopio University, Athens, Greece; Mars, Incorporated, Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania, Hackettstown, New Jersey, and McLean, Virginia; The McCord Museum, Montreal, Canada; Mills College, Oakland, California; Division of Social Sciences, New College of Florida, Sarasota, Florida; Oxford University, Oxford, England; Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, England; Parks Canada, Ottawa, Canada; Department of Community Development, Department of Engineering, Department of Food Science, Department of Native American Studies, Department of Nutrition, Graduate Group in Geography, and Peter J. Shields Library, University of California, Davis, California; and University of Massachusetts, North Dartmouth, Massachusetts.
Activities during the second research period (2004-2007) continued to identify chocolate-related documents available in archives, libraries, and museums located in Central America, Mexico, and the Caribbean, and efforts were expanded into additional countries of South and North America, western and southeastern Europe, western Africa, and south Asia. Our primary objectives were the following:
1. Determine historical patterns of introduction and dispersal of chocolate products throughout North America.
2. Identify the development and evolution of chocolate-related technology in North America.
3. Identify and trace the culinary, cultural, economic, dietary/medical, military, political, and social uses of chocolate in North America from the Colonial Era through the early 20th century.
4. Develop a state-of-the-art database and web portal for the history of chocolate, to be used by students, scholars, and scientists.
5. Publish chocolate-related findings via the popular press and scholarly journals, and relate findings via local, national, and international symposia and professional meetings.
The present book contains 56 chapters written by members of our chocolate history team. The story of chocolate is traced from earliest pre-Columbian times, through uses by Central American societies prior to European arrival, through the global spread of cacao trees to Africa and Asia, through Caribbean and South American trade, and ultimately the culinary and medical uses of chocolate in Europe, North America, and globally.
While much of the chocolate story has been told elsewhere, it is characteristic of chocolate-associated research that new documents can be identified and brought to light daily. Historical research on chocolate-associated topics has been facilitated in recent years by important, easily available on-line services through university and governmental subscriptions, whether the Library of Congress, Paper of Record, NewsBank/Readex, or other services. These sites (and others) have made it relatively easy to search millions of newspaper and journal/magazine advertisements and articles and other documents that cover historical North America (United States and Canada) from the 16th through early 20th centuries. These on-line services provide users with topical, keyword search engines that permit easy identification, retrieval, and cataloging of tens of thousands of documents within a short period in sharp contrast to the more laborious and time-consuming use of microfilm and microfiche services of previous decades. Still, it has been the slow, detailed tasks associated with archive and library research that has characterized much of our current efforts, and that has revealed many of the most exciting findings chronicled within the present book.
Our vision was to recruit a team of scholars with diversified training and research methods who would apply their special talents and skills to investigate chocolate history. Our team consisted of 115 colleagues and represented a broad range of professional fields: agronomy, anthropology, archaeology, archive science, art history, biochemistry, business management and product development, computer science, culinary arts, curatorial arts, dietetics, economics, engineering, ethnic studies, food science, gender studies, genetics and plant breeding, geography, history, legal studies (both historical and contemporary), library science, linguistics, marketing, museum administration, nutrition, paleography, and statistics. Team members also were skilled in a variety of languages, an important consideration given that chocolate-related documents regularly have appeared in Dutch, French, German, Greek, Italian, Latin, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish (Castiliano and contemporary national dialects), and Swedish, as well as ancient and contemporary Mesoamerican languages.
Topics investigated by members of our team also reflected diversified research interests: agriculture and agronomy (cacao cultivation and ecology), collectables (chocolate-associated posters, ephemera, toys, and trading cards), culinary arts (recipes and serving equipment), culture in its broadest sense (art, linguistics, literature, music, religion, and theater), diet and health (chocolate in preventive and curative medicine), economics (advertising, import/export, manufacturing, marketing, product design, and sales), education (18th century North American school and library books), ethics (issues associated with 17th to 19th century child labor and slavery), gender (division of labor and women ’ s roles in chocolate production), legal issues (chocolate-associated crime and trial accounts, copyright, and patent law), military (chocolate as rations and as hospital/medical supplies), and politics (chocolate-associated legislation at local, state, regional, national, and international levels).
Team members selected historical eras for their chocolate-related research that suited their interests, talents, and previous experience. These conceptual eras included: Pre-Columbian America; Colonial Era North, Central, South America, and the Caribbean; American Revolutionary War Era; America and Canada in the Post-Revolutionary War Era; Early American Federal Period; Continental Exploration and Westward Expansion (both Canadian and American); Spanish and Mexican Periods (American Southeast, Southwest borderlands, and West Coast regions of North America); California Gold Rush Era; American Civil War Era; Postwar Reconstruction; Early Industrial North America; and Early Modern Era.
The types of information available for inspection by team members included advertisements (magazines and newspapers, advertising posters, signs, and trade cards); archaeological materials (murals, paintings, pottery, statues, and actual chocolate residues from ancient containers); art (lithographs, paintings, prints, and sculpture); commonplace books, diaries, and handwritten travel accounts; expedition records; government documents; hospital records; personal correspondence; literature (diaries, novels, and poetry); magazine articles; menus; military documents; newspaper accounts; obituaries; probate records; religious documents; and shipping manifests.
During the early stages of our work, we elected not to produce an integrated global history of chocolate. In our view, such an effort would have exceeded several thousand pages in print and would have been out of date upon publication due to continued evidence uncovered almost daily during our archive, library, and museum research. Instead, the thematic chapters presented in the present book reflect in-depth snapshots that illustrate specific themes within the breadth and scope of chocolate history. As a collection, the chapters presented herein present a common thread that reveals the sustained importance of chocolate through the millennia. The chapters also reveal where additional scholarship and future activities might be productive. It is our hope that readers of our work, those interested in expanding and furthering archive, library, and museum research on chocolate, will themselves embark upon their own voyage of discovery and make additional contributions to chocolate research.
Louis Evan Grivetti
Howard-Yana Shapiro
Davis, California
January 2009
Acknowledgments
This book reflects the efforts of many persons and organizations. We wish to thank Deborah and Forrest Mars, Jr. for their deep interest in history and for their vision that led to the founding of the Chocolate History Group. We also extend our thanks to Dr. Harold Schmitz, Chief Scientist, Mars, Incorporated, for his valuable support throughout the years. To our editors at Wiley, Jonathan Rose and Lisa Van Horn, we thank you for your skills and dedication to produce a volume that is beautiful and content rich. We thank Lee Goldstein of Lee Goldstein Design for the design of the text and insert. We thank Dr. Teresa Dillinger for her support in the early days of our research and Dr. Deanna Pucciarelli who helped manage this enormous undertaking during the last three years. We thank Steven Oerding, Senior Artist/Supervisor, and Samuel Woo, Principal Photographer, both from IET-Academic Technology Services, Mediaworks, at the University of California, Davis, for photography and map production included within the present book. We also wish to thank the Administration and Librarians of the Peter J. Shields Library, University of California, Davis, especially Daryl Morrison and Axel Borg, for their assistance in locating key volumes and manuscripts during our research.
We sincerely extend our personal thanks to Mars, Incorporated for their generous support and their enduring respect and appreciation for all things chocolate, allowing us to document the enormous breadth of chocolate’s role throughout history.
Finally, we thank each of the chocolate history researchers who worked as part of our team throughout the last 10 years. Our lives have been enriched by each of them!
L. E. G.
H.-Y. S.
Chocolate Team (1998–2009)
Shelly Allen
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Brent Anderson
Process Development Engineer
Historic Division of Mars, Incorporated
Hackettstown, New Jersey
Jennifer Anderson
Professor
Department of Anthropology
California State University
San Jose, California
Margaret Asselin
Marketing Director
Mars, Incorporated
Hackettstown, New Jersey
Richard Bailey
Captain
Ocean Classrooms Foundation
Watch Hill, Rhode Island
Diane Barker
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
James Barrett
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Patricia Barriga
Archivist and Paleographer
Mexico City, Mexico
Steve Beck
California State Parks Service
Sutter’s Fort
Sacramento, California
William Bellody
Research and Development Officer
Mars, Incorporated
Hackettstown, New Jersey
Carmen Bernett
Mars, Incorporated
McLean, Virginia
Anne Blaschke
Postgraduate Researcher
Boston University
Boston, Massachusetts
Axel Borg
Librarian
Biological and Agricultural Sciences Department
Shields Library
University of California
Davis, California
Fred Bowers
National Sales Director
Mars, Incorporated
Jasper, Georgia
Laura Pallas Brindle
Postgraduate Researcher
University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia
Eileen Brown
Senior Franchise Manager
Mars, Incorporated
McLean, Virginia
Beatriz Cabezon
Paleographer and Independent Scholar
Davis, California
Halley Carlquist
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Kati Chevaux
Mars, Incorporated
Hackettstown, New Jersey
Frank Clark
Supervisor, Historic Foodways
Colonial Williamsburg Foundation
Williamsburg, Virginia
Christopher Clayton
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Jean Colvin
Director
University of California Research Expeditions (UREP)
Davis, California
Karl Crannell
Public Programs Coordinator
Fort Ticonderoga
Ticonderoga, New York
Brandon Davis
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Victoria Dickinson
Director
McCord Museum
Montreal, Canada
Teresa Dillinger
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Cleo Dimitriadou
Undergraduate Researcher
Harokopio University
Athens, Greece
Vassiliki Dragoumanioti
Undergraduate Researcher
Harokopio University
Athens, Greece
Phil Dunning
Material Culture Researcher
Parks Canada
Ottawa, Canada
Sylvia Escarcega
Assistant Professor
Department of Anthropology
DePaul University
Chicago, Illinois
Jennifer Follett
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Ruby Fougère
Curatorial Collections Specialist
Fortress of Louisbourg
National Historic Site of Canada
Nova Scotia, Canada
Christopher D. Fox
The Anthony D. Pell Curator of Collections
Fort Ticonderoga
Ticonderoga, New York
M arjorie Freedman
Professor
Department of Nutrition
California State University
San Jose, California
E sther Friedman
Independent Researcher
Boston, Massachusetts
Enrique García-Galiano
Professor
Department of Food Science
National University of Mexico
Mexico City, Mexico
Vanessa Gardia-Brito
MPM/Counsel, Americas
Mars, Incorporated
McLean, Virginia
James F. Gay
Journeyman
Historic Foodways
Colonial Williamsburg Foundation
Williamsburg, Virginia
Nicole Geurin
Undergraduate Researcher,
University of California
Davis, California
Rose Giordano
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Estrella González Noriega
Investigadora Auxiliar and
Adjunct Professor
Center for Anthropology
University of Havana
Havana, Cuba
Bertram M. Gordon
Professor
Department of History
Mills College
Oakland, California
Jim Grieship
Extension Specialist
Department of Community Development
University of California
Davis, California
Louis Evan Grivetti
Professor Emeritos
Department of Nutrition
University of California
Davis, California
Judy Hamway
Mars, Incorporated
Hackettstown, New Jersey
E. Jeanne Harnois
Independent Researcher
Boston, Massachusetts
Lisa Hartman
Historic Division of Mars, Incorporated
Bel Air, Maryland
Katy Heckendorn
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Jeya Henry
Professor
Department of Nutrition and Molecular Biology
Oxford Brookes University
Oxford, England
Martha Jimenez
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Aliza Johnson
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Anne Marie Lane Jonah
Historian
Fortress of Louisbourg
National Historic Site of Canada
Nova Scotia, Canada
Lois Kampinski
Independent Scholar
Washington, DC
Alexandra Kazaks
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Christopher Kelly
Postgraduate Researcher
Department of History
University of Massachusetts
North Dartmouth, Massachusetts
Gale Keogh-Dwyer
Mars, Incorporated
Hackettstown, New Jersey
Amanda Lange
Curatorial Department
Chair and Curator of Historic Interiors
Historic Deerfield
Deerfield, Massachusetts
Matthew Lange
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Kristine Lee
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Julio Lopez
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Catherine Macpherson
Independent Researcher
McCord Museum
Montreal, Canada
Martha J. Macri
Professor
Department of Native American Studies
University of California
Davis, California
Silviu Magarit
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Deborah Mars
President, Advisory Board
Historic Division of Mars, Incorporated
McLean, Virginia
Antonia-Leda Matala
Assistant Professor
Department of Nutrition
Harokopio University
Athens, Greece
Anne McCarty
Director of Membership and Special Initiatives
Fort Ticonderoga
Ticonderoga, New York
W. Douglas McCombs
Curator of History
Albany Institute of History and Art
Albany, New York
Timoteo Mendoza
Advisor to the California Department of Education
Madera, California
Catlin Merlo
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Janet Henshall Momsen
Professor Emerita
Department of Community Development
University of California
Davis, California
Victor Montejo
Professor
Department of Native American Studies
University of California
Davis, California
Heidi Moses
Archaeology Collections Manager
Fortress of Louisbourg
National Historic Site of Canada
Nova Scotia, Canada
Juan Carlos Motamayor
Senior Scientist
Mars, Incorporated
Miami, Florida
Mary Myers
Group Research Manager of Chocolate, Cocoa, Dairy
Mars, Incorporated
Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania
Nataraj Naidu
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Ezra Neale
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Madeiline Nguyen
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Benjamin Nowicki
Postgraduate Researcher
DePaul University
Chicago, Illinois
Niurka Nuñez González
Investigadora Agregada
Center for Anthropology
University of Havana
Havana, Cuba
Bradley Foliart Olsen
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Christian Ostrosky
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Adriana Parra
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Suzanne Perkins
Art Historian and Independent Scholar
Berkeley, California
Sue Provenzale
American Heritage Chocolate
Mars, Incorporated
Hackettstown, New Jersey
Deanna Pucciarelli
Assistant Professor
Food and Consumer Sciences
Ball State University
Muncie, Indiana
Sezin Rajandran
Archivist and Independent Scholar
Seville, Spain
Pamela Richardson
Postgraduate Researcher
Oxford University
Oxford, England
Kurt Richter
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Peter G. Rose
Independent Researcher
South Salem, New York
Robert Rucker
Biochemist and Nutritionist
Department of Nutrition
University of California
Davis, California
Diana Salazar
Independent Researcher and Translator
Davis, California
Brianna Schmid
Undergraduate Researcher and
University of California
Davis, California
Harold Schmitz
Mars, Incorporated
McLean, Virginia
Rebecca Shacker
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Celia D. Shapiro
Archivist and Independent Scholar
Washington, DC
Howard-Yana Shapiro
Director of Plant Science
Mars, Incorporated
Mclean, Virginia, and
University of California
Davis, California
Adam Siegal
Librarian
Humanities/Social Sciences Department
Shields Library
University of California
Davis, California
Rodney Snyder
Mars, Incorporated
Senior Research Engineer
Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania
Eduardo Somarriba
Professor, Tropical Agroforestry
Leader, Cocoa Thematic Group
CATIE (Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza)
Turrialba, Costa Rica
Ward Speirs
Mars, Incorporated
Hackettstown, New Jersey
Margaret Swisher
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Nghiem Ta
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California
Josef Toledano
Agriculture and Agroforestry Consultant
Tel Aviv, Israel
Gabrielle Vail
Research Scholar and Director
Florida Institute for Hieroglyphic Research
Division of Social Sciences
New College of Florida
Sarasota, Florida
Lucinda Valle
Instructor
Department of Art History
East Los Angeles Community College
Los Angeles, California
Victor Valle
Professor
Chair, Department of Ethnic Studies
California State University
San Luis Obispo, California
Eric Van De Wal
Marketing Director
Mars, Incorporated
Hackettstown, New Jersey
Marilyn Villalobos
Regional Coordinator
Central America Cacao Project
CATIE (Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza)
Turrialba, Costa Rica
Timothy Walker
Assistant Professor
Department of History
University of Massachusetts
North Dartmouth, Massachusetts
Gerald W. R. Ward
The Katharine Lane Weems Senior Curator of Decorative Arts and Sculpture
Art of the Americas
Museum of Fine Arts
Boston Massachusetts
Nicholas Westbrook
Director
Fort Ticonderoga
Ticonderoga, New York
Virginia Westbrook
Public Historian
Ticonderoga, New York
Eric Whitacre
Applied Food Science and Product Design
Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania
Amanda Zompetti
Undergraduate Researcher
University of Massachusetts
North Dartmouth, Massachusetts
Part I: Beginnings and Religion
Chapter 1 (Vail) considers chocolate use by Mayan cultures in the pre-Hispanic Yucatán Peninsula, as evidenced through cacao-and chocolate-associated texts and information from actual residues of chocolate beverages discovered in ceremonial pots excavated at archaeological sites. Her chapter traces the role of cacao in Mayan religion and explores its function both as food and as a ceremonial item. Chapter 2 (Macri) examines theories on the origins of the word cacao (originally given as kakaw) and traces the scholarly debates regarding the linguistic origins of cacao and how the word diffused throughout Mesoamerica. Her chapter also reviews the controversial suggestion that first use of the word chocola-tl in the Nahua/Aztec language appeared only after the Spanish conquest of Mexico in the 1520s. Chapter 3 (Grivetti and Cabezon) identifies the several Mayan, Mixeca/Aztec, and contemporary Native American religious texts that report how the first cacao tree was given to humans by the gods. Their chapter considers how chocolate found a niche within Catholic ritual and social uses during religious holidays in New Spain/Mexico. Chapter 4 (Cabezon and Grivetti) translates and comments on a suite of extraordinary New World, Spanish texts written during that tragic period known as the Inquisition. The documents reveal how chocolate sometimes was associated with behaviors considered by the Church at this time to be heretical, among them blasphemy, extortion, seduction, and witchcraft, as well as accusations and denouncement for being observant Jews. Their chapter casts bright light on these dark actions practiced during this terrible period of Mesoamerican history. Chapter 5 (Shapiro) documents the intriguing and rich history of Jewish merchants influential in the 18th century cacao trade between the Caribbean islands of Aruba and Cura ç ao, New Amsterdam/New York, and elsewhere in New England. Her chapter reveals and describes for the first time the important role played by Jewish merchants who developed and expanded cacao trade in North America.