Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
About the Editors
Preface
Acknowledgements
Part One: Components of RFID Systems and Performance Metrics
Chapter 1: Performance of Passive UHF RFID Systems in Practice
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Ideal RFID System
1.3 Practical RFID Systems
1.4 Overview of the Book
1.5 Conclusion
Chapter 2: Performance Metrics and Operational Parameters of RFID Systems
2.1 Overview
2.2 Key Operational Parameters
2.3 Classification of Commercially Available Products
2.4 Conclusion
Chapter 3: UHF RFID Antennas
3.1 Dipoles and Relatives
3.2 T Match and Relatives
3.3 Putting it Together: Building an RFID Tag
3.4 The Environment
3.5 Conclusions, Trends, and Challenges
Chapter 4: RFID Tag Chip Design
4.1 Tag Architecture Systems
4.2 Memory in Standard CMOS Processes
4.3 Baseband of RFID Tag
4.4 RFID Tag Performance Optimization
4.5 Conclusion
Chapter 5: Design of Passive Tag RFID Readers
5.1 Overview
5.2 Basics of Passive RFID Operation
5.3 Passive RFID Reader Designs
5.4 Advanced Topics on RFID Reader Design
5.5 Conclusion
Chapter 6: RFID Middleware: Concepts and Architecture
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Overview of an RFID Middleware Architecture
6.3 Readers Management
6.4 Data Management and Application Level Events
6.5 Store and Share Data
6.6 Example
6.7 Conclusion
Part Two: Tag Identification Protocols
Chapter 7: Aloha Based Protocols
7.1 Pure Aloha
7.2 Slotted Aloha
7.3 Framed Slotted Aloha
7.4 Conclusion
Chapter 8: Tree Based Anti Collision Protocols for RFID Tags
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Principles of Tree Based Anti Collision Protocols
8.3 Tree Protocols in the Existing RFID Specifications
8.4 Practical Issues and Transmission Errors
8.5 Cooperative Readers and Generalized Arbitration Spaces
8.6 Conclusion
Chapter 9: A Comparison of TTF and RTF UHF RFID Protocols
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Requirements for RFID Protocols
9.3 Different Approaches Used in UHF Protocols
9.4 Description of Stochastic TTF Protocols
9.5 Comparison between ISO18000 6C and TTF Protocols
9.6 Conclusion
Part Three: Reader Infrastructure Networking
Chapter 10: Integrating RFID Readers in Enterprise IT
10.1 Related Work
10.2 RFID System Services
10.3 Reader Capabilities
10.4 RFID System Architecture Taxonomy
10.5 EPCglobal Standards
10.6 Adoption of High Level Reader Protocols
10.7 Potential Future Standardization Activities
10.8 Conclusion
Chapter 11: Reducing Interference in RFID Reader Networks
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Interference Problem in RFID Reader Networks
11.3 Access Mechanism, Regulations, Standards and Algorithms
11.4 Comparison
11.5 Conclusion
Chapter 12: Optimal Tag Coverage and Tag Report Elimination
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Overview of RFID Systems
12.3 Tree Walking: An Algorithm for Detecting Tags in the Presence of Collisions
12.4 Reader Collision Avoidance
12.5 Coverage Redundancy in RFID Systems: Comparison with Sensor Networks
12.6 Network Model
12.7 Optimal Tag Coverage and Tag Reporting
12.8 Redundant Reader Elimination Algorithms: A Centralized Heuristic
12.9 RRE: A Distributed Solution
12.10 Adapting to Topological Changes
12.11 The Layered Elimination Optimization (LEO)
12.12 Related Work
12.13 Conclusion
Chapter 13: Delay/Disruption Tolerant Mobile RFID Networks: Challenges and Opportunities
13.1 Motivation
13.2 Overview of FINDERS
13.3 General Feasibility Study
13.4 Unique Challenges and Tactics
13.5 Related Work
13.6 Conclusion
Part Four: Addressing other Challenges in RFID Systems
Chapter 14: Improving Read Ranges and Read Rates for Passive RFID Systems
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Signal Descriptions and Formulations for Passive Backscatter RFID Systems
14.3 Improving the Read Range of a Passive RFID System
14.4 Improving the Read Rate of a Passive RFID System
14.5 Two Design Examples for RFID System
14.6 Conclusion
Chapter 15: Principles and Techniques of RFID Positioning
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Tag Range Estimation Techniques
15.3 DOA Estimation Techniques
15.4 RFID Positioning Techniques
15.5 Improving Positioning Accuracy
15.6 Conclusion
Chapter 16: Towards Secure and Privacy Enhanced RFID Systems
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Security and Privacy
16.3 Classification of RFID Systems
16.4 Attacks on RFID Systems and Appropriate Countermeasures
16.5 Lightweight Cryptography for RFID
16.6 Conclusion
Chapter 17: Cryptographic Approaches for Improving Security and Privacy Issues of RFID Systems
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Threats Against the RFID System
17.3 Required Properties
17.4 Cryptographic Protocols for Identification with Privacy
17.5 Cryptographic Protocols for Authentication without Privacy
17.6 Cryptographic Protocols for Privacy and Other Requirements
17.7 Implementation
17.8 Real Systems and Attacks
17.9 Conclusion
Chapter 18: Novel RFID Technologies: Energy Harvesting for Self Powered Autonomous RFID Systems
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Novel Low Power Architectures
18.3 Energy Harvesting Optimized for RFID
18.4 Future Trends in Energy Harvesting
18.5 Conclusion
Chapter 19: Simulators and Emulators for Different Abstraction Layers of UHF RFID Systems
19.1 Introduction
19.2 The Simulation/Emulation Platforms
19.3 UHF RFID Simulation Platform
19.4 Real Time HIL Verification and Emulation Platform
19.5 Higher Class Tag Architecture Based on Energy Harvesting
19.6 Conclusion
Index
This edition first published 2010
© 2010 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Except for: Chapter 5, ‘Design of Passive Tag RFID Readers’ © 2010 Intel Corporation
Registered office
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom
For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com.
The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.
Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
RFID systems : research trends and challenges / edited by Miodrag Bolic, David Simplot-Ryl, and Ivan Stojmenovic.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-470-74602-8 (cloth)
1. Radio frequency identification systems. I. Bolic, Miodrag. II. Simplot-Ryl, David. III. Stojmenovic, Ivan.
TK6570.I34R4868 2010
658.7′87 – dc22
2010003318
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN 978-0-470-74602-8 (H/B)
To my wife Andjelka and children Marija,
Natasa and Katarina.
Miodrag Boli
To Isabelle, my wife.
David Simplot Ryl
To my wife Natasa and children
Milos and Milica.
Ivan Stojmenovi
About the Editors
Miodrag Boli, mbolic@site.uottawa.ca, www.site.uottawa.ca/∼mbolic
Miodrag Boli received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in electrical engineering from the University of Belgrade, Serbia in 1996 and 2001, respectively, and his Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from Stony Brook University, NY, in 2004. Since 2004, he has been with the University of Ottawa, Canada, where he is an associate Professor at the School of Information Technology and Engineering. His current research interests include computer architectures, biomedical signal processing and RFID. He has eight years of industrial experience from the US and Serbia related to digital signal processing and embedded system design. He is a co founder of a start up Astraion Inc., NY, that develops novel RFID systems. He is a founder and director of Computer architecture research group and RFID research group at the University of Ottawa. He has been a principal investigator on a number of projects funded by NSERC, Canada, Ontario Centres of Excellences and industry. Dr. Boli has been involved in a number of research service activities including: chair of the joint chapter of signal processing, oceanic engineering, geosciences and remote sensing for the IEEE Ottawa section, and associate editor of Telecommunication Systems journal, Springer.
David Simplot Ryl, David.Simplot-Ryl@inria.fr, http://www.lifl.fr/∼simplot
David Simplot Ryl received the Graduate Engineer degree in computer science, automation, electronic and electrical engineering, and M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in computer science from the University of Lille, France, in 1993 and 1997, respectively. In 1998, he joined the Fundamental Computer Science Laboratory of Lille (LIFL), France, where he is currently professor. He received the Habilitation degree from the University of Lille, France, in 2003. His research interests include sensor and mobile ad hoc networks, mobile and distributed computing, embedded operating systems, smart objects and RFID technologies. Recently, his main occupation is contributing to international standardization on RFID tag identification protocols in partnership with Gemplus and TagSys companies. He has written scientific papers, book chapters and patents and received the Best Paper award at the 9th International Conference on Personal Wireless Communications (PWC 2004) and at the 2nd International Conference on Mobile Ad hoc and Sensor Networks (MSN 2006). He is an associate editor of Ad Hoc and Sensor Wireless Networks: An International Journal (Old City Publishing) and a member of the editorial board of International Journal of Computers and Applications (Acta Press), the International Journal of Wireless and Mobile Computing (Inderscience), and International Journal of Parallel, Emergent and Distributed Systems (Taylor & Francis).
Ivan Stojmenovi, ivan@site.uottawa.ca, www.site.uottawa.ca/∼ivan
Ivan Stojmenovi received the Ph.D. degree in mathematics. He has held regular and visiting positions in Serbia, Japan, the USA, Canada, France, Mexico, Spain, the UK (as Chair in Applied Computing at the University of Birmingham), Hong Kong, and Brazil, and is a Professor at the University of Ottawa, Canada. He has published over 250 different papers, and has edited four books on wireless, ad hoc and sensor networks and applied algorithms with Wiley/IEEE. He is the editor of over a dozen journals, is editor in chief of IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems (from January 2010), and founder and editor in chief of three journals (Multiple Valued Logic and Soft Computing; Parallel, Emergent and Distributed Systems; and Ad Hoc and Sensor Wireless Networks). Dr. Stojmenovi has h index 35 and >6000 citations. One of his articles was recognized as the Fast Breaking Paper, for October 2003 (the only one for the whole of computer science), by Thomson ISI Essential Science Indicators. He is the recipient of the Royal Society Research Merit Award, UK. He was elected to IEEE Fellow status (Communications Society, class of 2008), and is a recipient of Excellence in Research Award of the University of Ottawa, 2008–2009. He has chaired and/or organized >50 workshops and conferences, and served on over 100 program committees. Among others, he was/is program co/vice chair at IEEE PIMRC 2008, IEEE AINA 07, IEEE MASS 04&07, EUC 05&08, WONS 05, MSN 05&06, ISPA 05&07, has founded workshop series at IEEE MASS, IEEE ICDCS and IEEE DCOSS, and been Workshop Chair at IEEE MASS 09, ACM Mobicom/Mobihoc 07 and Mobihoc 08.
Preface
RFID networks are currently recognized as one a research area of priority. Research activities related to RFID technology have been booming recently. A number of ongoing projects are being funded in Europe, Asia, and North America. According to leading market analysts, the development of the RFID market is projected to increase from approximately $3 billion in 2005 to $25 billion in 2015. Several countries have dedicated innovation programs to support and develop RFID systems and related technologies: the RFID initiative in Taiwan, Ubiquitous Japan and the NSF SBIR program in the USA. The EU has recently advertised its Strategic Research Roadmap concerning the Internet of Things, which first of all refers to the RFID technology before being extended to communicating devices as in M2M (Machine to Machine). In this roadmap, several application domains have been identified:
- Aerospace and aviation
- Automotive
- Telecommunications
- Intelligent buildings
- Medical technology, healthcare
- Independent living
- Pharmaceutical
- Retail, logistics, supply chain management
- Manufacturing, product lifecycle management
- Oil and gas
- Safety, security and privacy
- Environment monitoring
- People and goods transportation
- Food traceability
- Agriculture and breeding
- Media, entertainment and ticketing
- Insurance
- Recycling
The potential of RFID technology is huge. Contrary to popular belief, RFID technology is not recent and the delay in its deployment in commercial applications is not only due to its excessive cost. Ten years ago, standardization activities were insufficiently developed to allow the emergence of one standard which guarantees interoperability. In the meantime, ISO and worldwide organizations such as GS1 have proposed solutions, but new problems have arisen such as privacy issues and reading accuracy in proximity of certain materials such as water. The integration of RFID data in information systems is also a non trivial problem. In the vision of the Internet of Things, future applications bring scalability and programmability issues.
The book is intended to cover a wide range of recognized problems in RFID protocols and low level research challenges, striking a balance between theoretical and practical coverage. The theoretical contributions are limited to the scenarios and solutions that are believed to have some practical relevance. This book is unique in addressing RFID protocols and communication issues in comprehensive manner.
The book is divided into four parts. Part I provides an introduction and describes architectures of both passive UHF readers and tags. In addition, it defines performance metrics and introduces different classifications of RFID systems. Part II is related to networking protocols that involve one reader and multiple tags with the goal of resolving tag to tag interference. Tag identification protocols are covered in a systematic way. They include Aloha based and tree based protocols, which are the most popular. In addition tag talks first and tag talks only protocols are discussed and compared with reader talks first protocols. Part III provides coverage of networking protocols that involve a host and multiple readers. First, the interface between the host and the readers is considered. Next, MAC layer solutions for reducing reader to tag interference are discussed. In addition, the redundant reader elimination problem and delay tolerant networks are covered. In Part IV, several major research challenges in the RFID field are presented, such unsatisfactory read accuracy even in the most favorable RF environments, low read ranges, security problems, localization of tags, energy harvesting and simulators and emulators for RFID systems. Some of these challenges are so serious that they are preventing the widespread use of RFID technology (e.g. low read accuracy and security). Therefore, a number of these challenges and potential solutions are analyzed in this part of the book.
At the end of most chapters, problems are presented and the solutions to some of the problems are provided on the book's website http://www.wiley.com/go/bolic_rfid.
We believe that this book is an appropriate and timely forum, where industry, and academics from several different areas can learn more about the current trends in RFID networking and become aware of the protocols and current issues in RFID networks. It is well recognized that RFID technology will become a part of everyday life soon. Additionally, we believe that, given the huge interest in this topic shown by the industrial and academic worlds, this book can become a standard guide to modern RFID systems.
Miodrag Boli
University of Ottawa, Canada
David Simplot Ryl
INRIA, France and University of Lille, France
Ivan Stojmenovi
University of Ottawa, Canada
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our gratitude to the authors of book chapters who not only contributed a book chapter but also reviewed one additional chapter. In addition, we would like to thank a number of people who helped us review this book as shown below (the reviewers are not listed in any specific order).
Gustaw Mazurek (Warsaw University of Technology), Daniel M. Dobkin (Enigmatics), Timo Kasper (Ruhr Universität Bochum), Venkatesh Sarangan (Oklahoma State University), Carlisle Adams (University of Ottawa), Zhang Xiong (Beihang University), Jeffrey S. Fu (Chang Gung University), Masahiro Miyakawa (Tsukuba University of Technology), Justin Wenck (University of California, Davis), Pradeep Shah (Texas MicroPower Inc.), Christoph Angerer (Vienna University of Technology), Seok Joong Hwang (Korea University), Ilker Onat (University of Ottawa), Md. Suruz Miah (University of Ottawa), Lin Wang (University of Pittsburgh), Fusheng Wang (Emory University), Junho Yeo (Daegu University), Stevan Preradovic (Monash University), Nicolas Pauvre (GS1 France), Mustapha Yagoub (University of Ottawa), Rony Amaya (Carleton University), Francesca Lonetti (ISTI CNR), Francesca Martelli (Università di Pisa), Gaetano Marrocco (Università di Roma), Michael E. Knox (Mode1corp), Pankaj Mishra (University of Ottawa), Nemai Chandra Karmakar (Monash University), Zhou Yuan (Nanyang Technological University), Guan Yong Liang (Nanyang Technological University), Petar M. Djuric (Stony Brook University), Ali Miri (University of Ottawa), Mohamad Forouzanfar (University of Ottawa), Daniel Shapiro (University of Ottawa), Qinghan Xiao (Defence Research and Development Canada), Qiang Guan (Chinese Academy of Sciences), Bela Stantic (Griffith University), Xianjin Zhu (Stony Brook University) and many others.
We greatly appreciate the support, guidance and encouragement given by Wiley's team including Sarah Tilley, Anna Smart and Tiina Ruonamaa.
Part One
Components of RFID Systems and Performance Metrics