Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Dedication

About the Author

Preface

Acknowledgements

Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Corrosion in the Oil, Gas, and Chemical Industries

1.1 Uniform Corrosion
1.2 Localized Corrosion
1.3 Low-Temperature Corrosion
1.4 High-Temperature Corrosion

Chapter 2: Corrosion Problems in the Petroleum and Chemical Industries

2.1 Stress Corrosion Cracking and Embrittlement
2.2 Hydrogen Attack
2.3 Corrosion Fatigue
2.4 Liquid-Metal Embrittlement
2.5 Basic Definition of Erosion-Corrosion
2.6 Mixed-Phase Flow
2.7 Entrained Catalyst Particles
2.8 Systematic Analysis of Project
2.9 Forms of Corrosion and Preventive Measures
2.10 Selective Leaching or De-Alloying Corrosion
2.11 Erosion-Corrosion
2.12 Stress Corrosion Cracking
2.13 Types of Hydrogen Damage
2.14 Concentration Cell Corrosion
2.15 Filiform Corrosion
2.16 Types of Intergranular Corrosion
2.17 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
2.18 Corrosion in Concrete

Chapter 3: Corrosion Considerations in Material Selection

3.1 Corrosion in Oil and Gas Products
3.2 Corrosives and Corrosion Problems in Refineries and Petrochemical Plants

Chapter 4: Engineering Materials

4.1 The Range of Materials
4.2 Properties of Engineering Materials
4.3 Corrosion Prevention Measures
4.4 Material Selection Procedure
4.5 Guidelines on Material Selection
4.6 Procedure for Material Selection
4.7 Process Parameters
4.8 Corrosion Rate and Corrosion Allowances
4.9 Corrosion Allowance
4.10 Selection of Corrosion-Resistance Alloys
4.11 Economics in Material Selection
4.12 Materials Appreciation and Optimization
4.13 Corrosion in Oil and Gas Products
4.14 Engineering Materials
4.15 Cast Iron
4.16 Non-Ferrous Metals
4.17 Polymers
4.18 Ceramics and Glasses
4.19 Composite Materials

Chapter 5: Chemical Control of Corrosive Environments

5.1 General Requirements and Rules for Corrosion Control
5.2 Basic Types of Inhibitors and How They Work
5.3 Corrosive Environments
5.4 Techniques for the Application of Inhibitors
5.5 Inhibitor Mechanisms
5.6 Criteria for Corrosion Control by Inhibitors
5.7 System Condition
5.8 Selection of Inhibitors
5.9 Economics of Inhibition
5.10 Environmental Factors for Corrosion Inhibitor Applications

Chapter 6: Requirements for Corrosion Control in the Petroleum and Petrochemical Industries

6.1 Exploration
6.2 Production
6.3 System Requirements for Corrosion Control of Oil Fields by Inhibitors
6.4 Types of Inhibitor
6.5 Selection of Inhibitor
6.6 Measurement
6.7 Factors Governing Oil Well Corrosion
6.8 Application of Inhibitor
6.9 Water Flooding and Water Disposal
6.10 Transportation and Storage
6.11 Biological Control in Oil and Gas Systems
6.12 Scale Control in Oil Systems

Chapter 7: Corrosion Inhibitors in Refineries and Petrochemical Plants

7.1 Nature of Corrosive Fluids
7.2 Corrosion of Steel
7.3 Corrosion of Copper Alloys
7.4 Neutralizing Corrosion Inhibitors
7.5 Filming Inhibitors
7.6 Special Concepts in the Use of Corrosion Inhibitors in Refineries
7.7 Economic Aspects of Chemical Inhibition and Other Measures for Corrosion Prevention
7.8 Special Refinery Processes Amenable to Corrosion Inhibitors
7.9 Corrosion in Gas Processing Units
7.10 Miscellaneous Refinery Corrosion Problems
7.11 Selection of Inhibitor
7.12 Control of Fouling
7.13 Utility (Cooling Water and Boiler Systems)
7.14 Boiler Corrosion Problems
7.15 Treatment of Acid Systems
7.16 Chemical Cleaning of Process Equipment
7.17 Critical Equipment Areas
7.18 Identification of Deposits
7.19 Chemical Cleaning

Chapter 8: Corrosion Inhibitor Evaluations

8.1 On-Line Monitoring of Corrosion
8.2 Corrosion Monitoring Techniques
8.3 Selecting a Technique for Corrosion Monitoring
8.4 Corrosion Monitoring Strategy
8.5 Measurement of Dissolved Solids
8.6 Measurement of Suspended Solids
8.7 Corrosion Product Analysis
8.8 Design Requirements
8.9 Automated Systems
8.10 Evaluation of Corrosion Inhibitors
8.11 Detection of Corrosion
8.12 Miscellaneous Corrosion Tests
8.13 Results of the Test Method
8.14 Field Testing of Inhibitors
8.15 Inhibitor Properties Other Than Effectiveness in Mitigating Corrosion
8.16 Monitoring of Corrosion Inhibitors
8.17 Corrosion Behavior of High-Alloy Tubular Materials in Inhibited Acidizing Conditions

Chapter 9: Compatibility in Material Selection

9.1 Requirements for Compatibility
9.2 Structures and Equipment
9.3 Piping Systems
9.4 Fasteners
9.5 Encapsulation, Sealing, and Enveloping
9.6 Electrical and Electronic Equipment
9.7 Coatings, Films, and Treatments
9.8 Chemical Compatibility
9.9 Environment
9.10 Stray Currents
9.11 Beneficial Results
9.12 Shape or Geometry
9.13 Structures
9.14 Mechanics

Chapter 10: Surface Preparation, Protection and Maintenance

10.1 Surface
10.2 Protection
10.3 Maintenance
10.4 Economics

Chapter 11: Fabrication and Choice of Material to Minimize Corrosion Damage

11.1 Design
11.2 Materials
11.3 Fabrication
11.4 Welding Procedure
11.5 Welding and Joining
11.6 Soldered Joints

Chapter 12: Heat Treatment

12.1 General Heat Treatment Requirements
12.2 Heat Treatment Process
12.3 Preheating of Metals
12.4 Surface Treatment of Stainless Steel
12.5 Handling, Transport, Storage, and Erection of Coated Metalwork
12.6 Inspection
12.7 Corrosion of Carbon Steel Weldments
12.8 Discussion
12.9 Conclusions
12.10 Corrosion of Austenitic Stainless Steel Weldments
12.11 Corrosion of Ferritic Stainless Steel Weldments
12.12 Corrosion of Duplex Stainless Steel Weldments
12.13 Stress-Corrosion Cracking
12.14 Use of High-Alloy Filler Metals
12.15 Corrosion of Nickel-Bases Alloys

Glossary of Terms

Bibliography

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2

Figure 1.3

Figure 1.4

Figure 1.5

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3

Figure 2.4

Figure 2.5

Figure 2.6

Figure 2.7

Figure 2.8

Figure 2.9

Figure 2.10

Figure 2.11

Figure 2.12

Figure 2.13

Figure 2.14

Figure 2.15

Figure 2.16

Figure 2.17

Figure 2.18

Figure 2.19

Figure 2.20

Figure 2.21

Figure 2.22

Figure 2.23

Figure 2.24

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

Figure 3.3

Figure 3.4

Figure 3.5

Figure 3.6

Figure 3.7

Figure 3.8

Figure 3.9

Figure 3.10

Figure 4.1

Figure 4.2

Figure 4.3

Figure 5.1

Figure 5.2

Figure 5.3

Figure 5.4

Figure 6.1

Figure 6.2

Figure 6.3

Figure 8.1

Figure 8.2

Figure 8.3

Figure 8.4

Figure 8.5

Figure 9.1

Figure 9.2

Figure 9.3

Figure 9.4

Figure 9.5

Figure 9.6

Figure 9.7

Figure 9.8

Figure 9.9

Figure 9.10

Figure 9.11

Figure 9.12

Figure 9.13

Figure 9.14

Figure 9.15

Figure 9.16

Figure 9.17

Figure 9.18

Figure 9.19

Figure 9.20

Figure 9.21

Figure 9.22

Figure 9.23

Figure 9.24

Figure 9.25

Figure 9.26

Figure 9.27

Figure 9.28

Figure 9.29

Figure 9.30

Figure 9.31

Figure 9.32

Figure 9.33

Figure 9.34

Figure 9.35

Figure 9.36

Figure 9.37

Figure 9.38

Figure 9.39

Figure 9.40

Figure 9.41

Figure 9.42

Figure 9.43

Figure 9.44

Figure 9.45

Figure 9.46

Figure 9.47

Figure 9.48

Figure 9.49

Figure 9.50

Figure 9.51

Figure 9.52

Figure 9.53

Figure 10.1

Figure 10.2

Figure 10.3

Figure 10.4

Figure 10.5

Figure 10.6

Figure 10.7

Figure 10.8

Figure 10.9

Figure 10.10

Figure 10.11

Figure 10.12

Figure 10.13

Figure 10.14

Figure 10.15

Figure 10.16

Figure 10.17

Figure 10.18

Figure 10.19

Figure 10.20

Figure 10.21

Figure 10.22

Figure 10.23

Figure 11.1

Figure 11.2

Figure 11.3

Figure 11.4

Figure 11.5

Figure 11.6

Figure 11.7

Figure 11.8

Figure 11.9

Figure 11.10

Figure 11.11

Figure 12.1

Figure 12.2

Figure 12.3

Figure 12.4

Figure 12.5

Figure 12.6

Figure 12.7

Figure 12.8

Figure 12.9

Figure 12.10

Figure 12.11

Figure 12.12

Figure 12.13

Figure 12.14

Figure 12.15

List of Tables

Table 2.1

Table 2.2

Table 3.1

Table 4.1

Table 4.2

Table 4.3

Table 4.4

Table 4.5

Table 4.6

Table 4.7

Table 4.8

Table 4.9

Table 4.10

Table 4.11

Table 4.12

Table 4.13

Table 4.14

Table 4.15

Table 4.16

Table 5.1

Table 5.2

Table 5.3

Table 5.4

Table 5.5

Table 6.1

Table 6.2

Table 6.3

Table 6.5

Table 6.6

Table 6.4

Table 6.7

Table 6.8

Table 6.9

Table 7.1

Table 7.2

Table 7.3

Table 7.4

Table 7.5

Table 7.6

Table 7.7

Table 7.8

Table 8.1

Table 8.2

Table 8.3

Table 8.4

Table 8.5

Table 8.6

Table 8.7

Table 8.8

Table 8.9

Table 8.10

Table 8.11

Table 8.12

Table 9.1

Table 9.2

Table 10.1

Table 10.2

Table 10.3

Table 10.4

Table 10.5

Table 11.1

Table 11.2

Table 11.3

Table 11.4

Table 11.5

Table 11.6

Table 11.7

Table 11.8

Table 11.9

Table 11.10

Table 11.11

Table 11.12

Table 11.13

Table 12.1

Table 12.2

Table 12.3

Table 12.4

Table 12.5

Table 12.6

Table 12.7

Table 12.8

Table 12.9

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bahadori, Alireza.

Corrosion and materials selection : a guide for the chemical and petroleum industries / Alireza Bahadori.

pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-118-86922-2 (cloth)

1. Petroleum refineries— Materials— Corrosion. 2. Petroleum pipelines— Corrosion. 3. Corrosion and anti-corrosives. I. Title.

TP690.8.B24 2014

660′.28304— dc23

2014004163

ISBN: 9781118869222

1 2014

About the Author

Alireza Bahadori, PhD, is a research staff member in the School of Environment, Science and Engineering at Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, Australia. He received his PhD from Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia.

During the past 20 years, Dr Bahadori has held various process and petroleum engineering positions and has been involved in many large-scale projects at the National Iranian Oil Co. (NIOC), Petroleum Development Oman (PDO), and Clough AMEC PTY LTD. He is the author of around 250 articles and 12 books, published by prestigious publishers such as John Wiley & Sons, Elsevier, Springer, and Taylor & Francis.

Dr Bahadori is the recipient of the highly competitive and prestigious Australian Government's Endeavour International Postgraduate Research Award as part of his research in the oil and gas area. He also received a top-up award from the State Government of Western Australia through Western Australia Energy Research Alliance (WA:ERA) in 2009. Dr Bahadori serves as a member of the editorial board and a reviewer for a large number of journals. He was honoured by Elsevier as the outstanding author of Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering in 2009.

Preface

Metallic corrosion is costly. Several billion dollars annually in the USA, and about one-third of that is noted as avoidable corrosion, a cost that could be eliminated if proper corrosion protection methods were in place.

Today, there are a great deal of construction materials available, varying from metallic to non-metallic. There are also a large number of factors to be taken into consideration when selecting a material for a given application.

Factors that influence corrosion consideration in material selection are distinct from those that interact in a more complex fashion. For example, “application” influences selection because the type of process, and the variables during operation etc., will define whether a material can be used for the intended purpose or not. On the other hand mechanical and metallurgical properties are not uniquely defined for all environments. For example, if the material is to be used at low temperature then embrittlement can be a serious problem.

These considerations have a direct influence on corrosion consideration in material selection. However, when there is discrepancy amongst sections of this book, or between this and other disciplines regarding selection of materials, other priorities, such as client preference, in-house experience, and specific industry standards, should also be observed.

This book covers corrosion considerations in the selection of materials specifically used in the oil, gas, chemical and petrochemical industries. It provides the necessary tools for the design stage of a system, in order to avoid or minimize corrosion hazards technically, economically and safely during the designed life of such a system. Proper corrosion control of structures and units is most effectively and economically begun during the design stage.

Various forms of corrosion and prevention methods are discussed in this book.

It also deals with the control of corrosive environments by inhibitors, general requirements for the petroleum and chemical industries, and utility systems such as cooling water, boiler water systems etc.

Finally it deals with monitoring internal corrosion. It provides guidance for on-line monitoring of internal corrosion in plants associated with the oil, gas and chemical industries, and guidance on laboratory monitoring and evaluation of corrosion inhibitors. The book also covers experiments on the corrosion behaviour of high-alloy tubular materials in inhibited acidizing conditions.

Metallic corrosion is costly. However, the cost of corrosion is not just financial. Beyond the huge direct outlay of funds to repair and/or replace corroded and/or decaying structures are the indirect costs (natural resources, potential hazards, and lost opportunities). When a project is constructed with a material not able to survive its environment for the length of the designed life, natural resources are needlessly consumed to continually repair and maintain the structure. Wasting natural resources is a direct contradiction of the growing need for sustainable development to benefit future generations.

In addition to the waste of natural resources, facilities that cannot sustain their environment can lead to hazardous situations. Accidents caused by corroded structures can lead to huge safety concerns, loss of life and resources, and more. One failed pipeline, bridge collapse, or other catastrophe is one too many, and leads to huge indirect costs (more traffic delays, loss of business, etc.) and public outcry. Depending on which market sector (industrial, infrastructure, commercial, etc.) is being considered, these indirect costs may be as high as five to ten times the direct cost.

Corrosion and Materials Selection

A Guide for the Chemical and Petroleum Industries

About the Author

Preface

Acknowledgements