Cover
Preface
About the Author
1 Wastewater Treatment
1. 1.1 Characteristics of Wastewater
2. 1.2 Treatment Stages
3. 1.3 Effluent Water Pollution Control
4. 1.4 Treatment Processes
5. 1.5 Siting and Design
6. 1.6 Sources of Effluent in the Petrochemical Industry
7. 1.7 Effect of Pollution
8. 1.8 Olefin Plants
9. 1.9 Environmental Protection for Industrial Waste
10. 1.10 Chemical Oxygen Demand in Wastewater Systems
2 Physical Unit Operations
1. 2.1 Flow Measurement
2. 2.2 Screening
3. 2.3 Comminution
4. 2.4 Grit Removal
5. 2.5 Gravity Separation
6. 2.6 Flow Equalization
7. 2.7 Mixing
8. 2.8 Sedimentation
9. 2.9 Dissolved Air Flotation
10. 2.10 Granular‐Media Filters
3 Chemical Treatments
1. 3.1 Introduction
2. 3.2 Definition and Application
3. 3.3 Chemical Precipitation
4. 3.4 Chemical Flocculation
5. 3.5 Disinfection
6. 3.6 Chlorination
7. 3.7 Water Monitoring
8. 3.8 On‐Site Portable Instruments for Water Pollution Control
9. 3.9 Physical Examination
10. 3.10 Automated Laboratory Equipment for Monitoring Water and Wastewater
4 Biological Treatments
1. 4.1 Theory
2. 4.2 Biological Treatment Processes
3. 4.3 Activated Sludge Units
4. 4.4 Trickling Filters
5. 4.5 Rotating Biological Contactor System
6. 4.6 Sewage Oxidation Ponds
5 Wastewater Treatment in the Unconventional Oil and Gas Industries
1. 5.1 Background
2. 5.2 Toxicity Limitations of Coal Bed Water
3. 5.3 Shale Gas and CSG Produced Water: Treatment, and Disposal
4. 5.4 Re‐thinking Technologies for Safer Facing
5. 5.5 Water Treatment for Oil Sands Mining
6 Wastewater Sewer Systems
1. 6.1 Storm Water Sewer System
2. 6.2 Oily Water Sewer System
3. 6.3 Non‐Oily Water Sewer System
4. 6.4 Chemical Sewer System(s)
5. 6.5 Sanitary Sewer System
6. 6.6 Special Sewer Systems
7. 6.7 Effluent Sources and Disposal
8. 6.8 Particular Effluents in Refinery and Petrochemical Plants
9. 6.9 Petrochemical Plant Special Effluents
10. 6.10 NGL, LNG, and LPG Area Effluents
11. 6.11 Gas Treatment Facilities Effluents
12. 6.12 Effluents from Terminals, Depots, and Product Handling Areas
13. 6.13 General Considerations and Conditions for Release of Waste
14. 6.14 Effluent Wastewater Characteristics
15. 6.15 Wastewater Emissions
16. 6.16 Unsaturated Zone
17. 6.17 Site Assessment
18. 6.18 Gathering Release Information
7 Sewage Treatment
1. 7.1 Sewage Effluents
2. 7.2 Methods of Sewage Treatment: General
3. 7.3 Choice of System: General
4. 7.4 Design of Sewage Treatment Plants: General Guidance
5. 7.5 Design of Small Sewage Treatment Plants
6. 7.6 Preliminary Treatment
7. 7.7 Primary and Secondary Settlement Tanks
8. 7.8 Sludge Digesters
9. 7.9 Drying Beds
10. 7.10 Biological Filters
11. 7.11 Activated Sludge Units
12. 7.12 Tertiary Treatment (Polishing) Processes
13. 7.13 Disposal of Final Effluent
14. 7.14 Advanced Wastewater Treatment
15. 7.15 Effluent Disposal and Reuse
8 Solid Waste Treatment and Disposal
1. 8.1 Basic Considerations
2. 8.2 Sludge Handling, Treatment, and Reuse
3. 8.3 Stabilization
4. 8.4 Conditioning
5. 8.5 Disinfection
6. 8.6 Dewatering
7. 8.7 Heat Drying
8. 8.8 Thermal Reduction
9. 8.9 Land Application of Sludge
10. 8.10 Chemical Fixation
11. 8.11 Gathering Contaminant‐Specific Information
12. 8.12 Evaluating Contaminant Mobility
13. 8.13 Technology Selection
14. 8.14 Saturated Zone
15. 8.15 Site Assessment
16. 8.16 Evaluating Contaminant Mobility
17. 8.17 Setting Remediation Goals
18. 8.18 Technology Selection
19. 8.19 Dissolved Contaminants
20. 8.20 Methodology for Pipeline Leak Consequence Evaluation
21. 8.21 Leak Detection Techniques
22. 8.22 Leakproof Control of Pipeline Gas Piping, Tanks, and Technological Installations Using Radioactive Tracers
23. 8.23 Final Sludge and Solids Conveyance, Storage, and Disposal
24. 8.24 Disposal of Solid Waste
25. 8.25 Emissions to Land
26. 8.26 Evaluation of Soil Infiltration Problems
Definitions and Terminology
Bibliography
Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1
1. Table 1.1Wastewater pollutants and sources.
2. Table 1.2Contaminant importance in wastewater treatment.
3. Table 1.3Typical waste compounds classified as priority pollutants.
4. Table 1.4General classification of wastewater solids.
5. Table 1.5Occupational exposure to carcinogenic substances.
6. Table 1.6Industrial substances suspected of carcinogenic potential for humans.
7. Table 1.7Typical wastewater qualities.
8. Table 1.8Threshold concentrations of pollutants inhibitory to the activated‐slud...
9. Table 1.9Sludge‐processing and disposal methods.
10. Table 1.10Unit operations, unit processes, and systems for waste‐water treatment...
11. Table 1.11Selective list of unit processes used for particular waste constituent...
12. Table 1.12Treatment processes used for the removal of toxic compounds.
13. Table 1.13Refinery treatment sequence options.
14. Table 1.14Summary of physical treatment methods for petrochemical wastes classif...
15. Table 1.15 Summary of chemical and biological treatment methods for petrochemica...
16. Table 1.16Summary of ultimate disposal methods for petrochemical wastes classifi...
17. Table 1.17Types of water pollution.
18. Table 1.18Wastewater contaminated with wet PVC and VCM characteristics.
19. Table 1.19Typical maximum effluent standard for municipal waste (daily average).
20. Table 1.20 A typical effluent: permissible concentrations.
21. Table 1.21Typical physical characteristics of potable water.
22. Table 1.22Effect of flowrates and constituent mass loadings on the selection and...
23. Table 1.23Oxygen demand per one mole component i, molar mass, and theoretical ox...
Chapter 2
1. Table 2.1Applications of physical unit operations in wastewater treatment.
2. Table 2.2Screening devices.
3. Table 2.3Horseshoe‐type floating skimmer advantages and disadvantages.
4. Table 2.4Types of settling phenomena involved in wastewater treatment.
5. Table 2.5Tuned coefficients used in Eqs. (2.18)–(2.21).
6. Table 2.6Typical contaminant removal efficiencies for granular‐media filters....
Chapter 3
1. Table 3.1Classification of ion exchange resins.
2. Table 3.2 Relative exchange capacity of cation exchangers.
3. Table 3.3 Applications of chemical unit processes in wastewater treatment.
4. Table 3.4Applications of chemical unit processes in wastewater treatment.
5. Table 3.5Chemicals used in wastewater treatment.
6. Table 3.6Design contaminant removal efficiencies for chemical flocculation units...
7. Table 3.7Characteristics of an ideal chemical disinfectant.
8. Table 3.8Removal or destruction of bacteria by different treatment processes.
9. Table 3.9Chlorination applications in wastewater collection and treatment.
10. Table 3.10Typical chlorine dosages for disinfection.
11. Table 3.11Technical data.
12. Table 3.12Electrodes and ion‐selective.
13. Table 3.13Saturation(s) factors for calculating petroleum liquid loading losses.
14. Table 3.14Default speciation factors for organics in refinery effluent.
15. Table 3.15Default emission factors for trace elements and inorganics in refinery...
Chapter 4
1. Table 4.1Kinetic models for inhibition growth (Han and Levenspiel 1988).
2. Table 4.2Growth models for inhibitor as substrate.
3. Table 4.3Major biological treatment processes used for wastewater treatment.
4. Table 4.4Major differences in aerobic and anaerobic treatment.
5. Table 4.5Criteria for pretreatment of activated sludge feed.
6. Table 4.6Relative biodegradability of certain organic compounds.
Chapter 5
1. Table 5.1Oxygen in coal bed waters.
2. Table 5.2Comparison of produced water membrane treatment technologies (Igunnu an...
3. Table 5.3Comparison of produced water thermal treatment technologies (Igunnu and...
4. Table 5.4Water treatment processes: problems and potentials.
5. Table 5.5Oily water qualitative characteristic ranges and the treatment capabili...
Chapter 6
1. Table 6.1New proposed correlation coefficients to predict the aqueous solubility...
2. Table 6.2.Evaluated coefficients for predicting hydrocarbon solubility in water ...
3. Table 6.3Evaluated coefficients for predicting water solubility in hydrocarbons ...
4. Table 6.4.Default speciation factors for organics in refinery effluent.
5. Table 6.5Default emission factors for trace elements and inorganics in refinery ...
6. Table 6.6.Typical effluent permissible concentrations.
7. Table 6.7Basic release information assumed to be known.
8. Table 6.8Site‐specific parameters to gather.
9. Table 6.9Factors to evaluate the mobility of liquid contaminants.
10. Table 6.10Factors to evaluate the mobility of contaminant vapors.
Chapter 7
1. Table 7.1Filter medium capacity.
2. Table 7.2Grading limits for 50 mm filter medium.
3. Table 7.3Typical composition of untreated domestic wastewater (all values except...
4. Table 7.4Typical chemical constituents that may be found in wastewater and their...
5. Table 7.5Advanced wastewater treatment operations and processes.
6. Table 7.6Potential uses of renovated water.
Chapter 8
1. Table 8.1Sources of solids and sludge from a conventional wastewater treatment p...
2. Table 8.2Characteristics of solids and sludge produced during wastewater treatme...
3. Table 8.3Typical chemical composition and properties of untreated and digested s...
4. Table 8.4Typical metal content in wastewater sludge.
5. Table 8.5Typical data for the physical characteristics and quantities of sludge ...
6. Table 8.6Sludge processing and disposal methods.
7. Table 8.7Application of pumps to types of sludge.
8. Table 8.8Expected sludge concentrations from various treatment operations and pr...
9. Table 8.9Occurrence of thickening methods in sludge processing.
10. Table 8.10Anaerobic digester design data.
11. Table 8.11Aerobic digester design data.
12. Table 8.12Comparison of alternative sludge‐dewatering methods.
13. Table 8.13Factors to evaluate the mobility of contaminants in pore water.
14. Table 8.14Fluid properties.
15. Table 8.15Leak expectancy factor.
16. Table 8.16Fluid hazard factors (S₁).
17. Table 8.17Population density factor (S₂).
18. Table 8.18Climate correction factor for persistence/seepage factor (E₂).
19. Table 8.19Clean‐up and/or other associated costs.
20. Table 8.20Summary of the capabilities and application of leak detection techniqu...
21. Table 8.21Composition of BPG.
22. Table 8.22Examples of possible environmental impacts.
23. Table 8.23Sources and characteristics of refinery solid wastes.
24. Table 8.24Characteristics of hazardous waste.
25. Table 8.25Design and operational considerations.
26. Table 8.26Tuned coefficients used in Eqs (8.12)–(8.15) for estimating absorption...
27. Table 8.27Given data in example.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1
1. Figure 1.1 A simplified schematic of the wastewater treatment process.
2. Figure 1.2 A schematic of wastewater treatment.
Chapter 2
1. Figure 2.1 Screening process illustration in water and wastewater treatmen...
2. Figure 2.2 A typical bar screen consisting of a series of parallel bars or...
3. Figure 2.3 A schematic of a comminutor.
4. Figure 2.4 A schematic of a grit chamber in both above and side views.
5. Figure 2.5 A highland rectangular API oil–water separator.
6. Figure 2.6 A conventional API oil–water separator.
7. Figure 2.7 An oil–water separator.
8. Figure 2.8 A rotary drum oil skimmer.
9. Figure 2.9 A parallel plate API oil–water separator.
10. Figure 2.10 An equalization basin.
11. Figure 2.11 Force balance on a discrete spherical particle.
12. Figure 2.12 Chart to estimate the drag coefficient.
13. Figure 2.13 Ideal sedimentation basin.
14. Figure 2.14 Sedimentation basin zones.
15. Figure 2.15 A schematic of a conventional DAF system.
16. Figure 2.16 Schematic of a DAF system.
17. Figure 2.17 The performance of a predictive tool in comparison with data ...
18. Figure 2.18 The smoothness of results for the predictive tool for the est...
19. Figure 2.19 The smoothness of results for the predictive tool for the est...
20. Figure 2.20 A granular‐media filter system.
21. Figure 2.21 Estimation of the backwash rate in a granular‐media filter sy...
Chapter 3
1. Figure 3.1 The coagulation process.
2. Figure 3.2 The flocculation process.
3. Figure 3.3 Sedimentation mechanism in wastewater treatment.
4. Figure 3.4 Secondary circular clarifier.
5. Figure 3.5 Chlorine contact chamber.
6. Figure 3.6 Continuous water sampling and monitoring system.
7. Figure 3.7 Sampling of atmospheric precipitation.
8. Figure 3.8 The installation of a suction sampler.
9. Figure 3.9 Atomic absorption spectrometer.
10. Figure 3.10 Double‐beam spectrophotometer.
11. Figure 3.11 COD analyzer.
Chapter 4
1. Figure 4.1 Conventional activated sludge process system.
2. Figure 4.2 Integrated fixed film activated system.
3. Figure 4.3 Aerobic basin.
4. Figure 4.4 Activated sludge system (example 1).
5. Figure 4.5 Activated sludge system (example 2).
6. Figure 4.6 Aerobic basin with supplemental DO system.
7. Figure 4.7 Diagram of a trickling filter.
8. Figure 4.8 Examples of trickling filters.
9. Figure 4.9 Diagram of a rotating biological contactor.
10. Figure 4.10 Rotating biological contactors preceded by pre‐trea...
11. Figure 4.11 Example of a rotating biological contactor.
12. Figure 4.12 Diagram of a sewage oxidation pond.
13. Figure 4.13 Sewage oxidation ponds.
Chapter 5
1. Figure . 5.1 Used frack water from drilling operation around a shale gas d...
2. Figure 5.2 A holding pond at Woodview, west of Casino, used by a coal seam...
3. Figure 5.3 Surface treatment of coal bed water.
4. Figure 5.4 A typical reverse osmosis treatment process.
5. Figure 5.5 Comparison of electrolysis and electrodialysis. CEM, cation exc...
6. Figure 5.6 Water treatment system in the SAGD process operated by Japan Ca...
7. Figure 5.7 Samples of water takes from sample points in Figure 5.36....
Chapter 6
1. Figure 6.1 A possible design for integrating sewage sludge incineration in...
2. Figure 6.2 Predicting the aqueous solubility of methane.
3. Figure 6.3 Predicting the aqueous solubility of ethane.
4. Figure 6.4 Predicting the aqueous solubility of C3 to C6 based on the ne...
5. Figure 6.5 Predicting the aqueous solubility of C6 to C10 based on the n...
6. Figure 6.6 Predicting the solubility of water in C3 to C6 based on the ne...
7. Figure 6.7 Predicting the solubility of water in C6 to C10 based on the ...
8. Figure 6.8 Water‐holding properties of various soils on the basis of their...
Chapter 7
1. Figure 7.1 Typical sewage situations.
2. Figure 7.2 Sewage treatment plants.
3. Figure 7.3 Grit chamber.
4. Figure 7.4 Primary settling tank.
5. Figure 7.5 A sludge digestor.
6. Figure 7.6 Drying bed.
7. Figure 7.7 Secondary settling tank.
8. Figure 7.8 Typical biological filter.
Chapter 8
1. Figure 8.1 A typical source of solids and sludge.
2. Figure 8.2 A bioremediation system.
3. Figure 8.3 A soil flushing system.
4. Figure 8.4 The problem of the presence of LNAPL.
5. Figure 8.5 A typical leaking underground tank with contaminant plume.
6. Figure 8.6 Typical packed tower air stripper.
7. Figure 8.7 Persistence factor (offshore) and persistence/seepage factor (o...
8. Figure 8.8 Pipeline pig.
9. Figure 8.9 Composite liquid‐waste sampler.
10. Figure 8.10 Weighted‐bottle sampler.
11. Figure 8.11 A dipper.
12. Figure 8.12 A thief sampler.
13. Figure 8.13 A trier sampler.
14. Figure 8.14 Prediction of in comparison with reported data (Metcalf an...
15. Figure 8.15 Prediction of in comparison with reported data (Metcalf an...

Copyright

This edition first published 2020

Edition History

John Wiley & Sons Ltd (1e, 2014)

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of Alireza Bahadori to be identified as the author of this work asserted in accordance with law.

Registered Offices

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA

John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

Editorial Office

The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print‐on‐demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Bahadori, Alireza, author.

Title: Waste management in the chemical and petroleum industries /

Alireza Bahadori (Southern Cross University, Lismore, New South Wales,

Australia).

Description: Second edition. | Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,

[2020] | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2019024462 (print) | LCCN 2019024463 (ebook) | ISBN

9781119551720 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119551737 (adobe pdf) | ISBN

9781119551751 (epub)

Subjects: LCSH: Petroleum industry and trade – Waste disposal. | Chemical

industry – Waste disposal. | Petroleum refineries – Waste disposal.

Classification: LCC TD899.P4 B34 2020 (print) | LCC TD899.P4 (ebook) |

DDC 628.5/1 – dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019024462

LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019024463

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Images: © kessudap/Shutterstock, © PICHITBO/Shutterstock, © pan demin/Shutterstock

Preface

Oil and gas are major sources of energy and revenue for many countries today – their production has been described as one of the most important industrial activities in the twenty‐first century – and obviously waste treatment and disposal assume a greater degree of importance in the petroleum, chemical processing, and unconventional oil and gas industries than ever before.

Wastewater quality and the quantity produced determine the means of disposal and the costs of disposal. Suspended solids, total dissolved solids, and oxygen demand of produced waters have the most impact on wastewater treatment.

Wastewater is a complex mixture of organic and inorganic compounds, and the largest volume of by‐product generated during chemical processing and both conventional and unconventional oil and gas recovery operations. The potential of oilfield produced water to be a source of fresh water for water‐stressed oil‐producing countries and the increasing environmental concerns in addition to stringent legislation on produced water discharge into the environment have made produced water management a significant part of the oil and gas business.

In marginally economic coal bed projects, the water disposal costs and the attendant environmental accounting are critical factors in the investment decision; water disposal costs economically make or break a marginal project.

Before investing in a coal bed methane (CBM) process, a multiplicity of questions have to be answered concerning the water to be produced – questions concerning quantity, flow rates, chemical content, disposal means, monitoring, and environmental regulations. Perhaps no other factor affects the economics and feasibility of CBM projects as much as water removal and disposal.

In heavy oil production, between 2 and 4.5 volume units of water are used to produce each volume unit of synthetic crude oil in an ex situ mining operation. Despite recycling, almost all of it ends up in tailings ponds. However, in steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) operations, 90–95% of the water is recycled and about 0.2 volume units of water is used per volume unit of bitumen produced.

A major hindrance to the monitoring of oil sands produced waters has been the lack of identification of the individual compounds present. By better understanding the nature of the highly complex mixture of compounds, including naphthenic acids, it may be possible to monitor rivers for leachate and also to remove toxic components. Such identification of individual acids has for many years proved to be impossible but a recent breakthrough in analysis has begun to reveal what is in the oil sands produced waters.

The extraction and use of shale gas can affect the environment through leaking of extraction chemicals and waste into water supplies, leaking of greenhouse gasses during extraction, and pollution caused by the improper processing of natural gas.

A challenge to preventing pollution is that shale gas extractions vary widely in this regard, even between different wells in the same project; the processes that reduce pollution sufficiently in one extraction may not be enough in another.

Chemicals are added to the water to facilitate the underground fracturing process that releases natural gas. Fracturing fluid is primarily water and approximately 0.5% chemical additives (friction reducer, agents countering rust, agents killing microorganism). Since (depending on the size of the area) millions of liters of water are used, this means that hundreds of thousands of liters of chemicals are often injected into the soil.

Only about 50–70% of the resulting volume of contaminated water is recovered and stored in above‐ground ponds to await removal by tanker. The remaining “produced water” is left in the earth, where it can lead to contamination of groundwater aquifers, though the industry deems this “highly unlikely.” However, the wastewater from such operations often may lead to foul‐smelling odors and heavy metals contaminating the local water supply above ground.

This book unravels essential requirements for the process design and engineering of the equipment and facilities pertaining to wastewater treatment units, solid waste disposal and wastewater sewer systems of oil and gas refineries, chemical plants, oil terminals, petrochemical plants, unconventional oil and gas industries (coal seam gas or CBM, shale gas and oil sand production), and other facilities as required. In this new edition, the latest developments with regard to minimization of soil and water pollution have been added to the book and some chapters have been significantly updated. Included in the scope are:

• liquid and solid disposal systems
• primary oil/solids removal facilities
• further oil and suspended solids removal (secondary oil/solids removal), such as dissolved air flotation units
• granular media filters and chemical flocculation units
• chemical addition systems
• biological treatment
• filtration and/or other final polishing
• sewage system handling domestic and medical sanitary appliances of buildings
• drainage system carrying surface and rainwater
• wastewater gathering systems
• clean water drainage, e.g. from buildings and paved areas
• evaporation ponds and disposal by natural percolation into the subsoil in permeable ground
• sanitary sewage treatment
• sludge handling and treatment.

It is obvious that the aim of any drainage/effluent disposal system should be to segregate uncontaminated water from contaminated water or effluents and to segregate different types of effluents in order to reduce the size, complexity, and costs of any treatment units which may be required for handling the contaminated water and effluents before they are discharged from a unit.

All wastewater effluents from the industries which are discharged to public and/or natural water sources or directed to recycling purposes inside the industry and may contain a wide variety of matters in solution or suspension should be controlled according to the requirements imposed by the final destination. However, in any case elimination of the waste or the hazard potential of the waste shall be ultimate goal in the management of hazardous wastes.

Under no circumstances should the effluent water cause oil traces on the surface or embankments of the receiving water, or affect the natural self‐purification capacity of the receiving water to such an extent that it would cause hindrance to others.

Under no conditions should polluted streams be combined with unpolluted streams if the resultant stream would then require purification. In general, the main sewer systems in the industry should be segregated according to the following categories:

• storm water sewer systems
• oily water sewer systems
• non oily water sewer systems
• chemical sewer systems
• sanitary sewer systems
• special sewer systems.

In all areas, including process, offsite, and utility units, provisions should be made to foresee any of the above‐mentioned sewer systems as required.

The treatment of wastewater involves a sequence of treatment steps. Every wastewater treatment process involves the separation of solids from water in at least some part of the operation and removal of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) to some extent.

The end of pipe treatment sequence can be divided into the following elements: primary or pretreatment, intermediate treatment, secondary treatment, and tertiary treatment plus ancillary, sludge dewatering, and disposal operations.

The key to optimize the treatment sequence for provision of maximum water treatment at minimum cost is to identify the rule of each unit operation and optimize that operation. Optimizing the performance of specific unit operations, such as the American Petroleum Institute (API) separator, dissolved air flotation, biological treatment, etc. can best be achieved if:

a) the properties of influent streams are considered
b) the chemical principles that are used in solids pretreatment are understood
c) the variety of chemicals available for solids treatment is recognized
d) the properties of effluent water are established based on the local environmental regulations and final disposal
e) the protocols for quantifying results are identified.

In general, most industries require water for processing or other purposes; much of this water after use is discharged either to public and/or natural water sources or directed to recycling purposes inside the industry.

Such discharge, which may contain a wide variety of matter in solution or suspension, should be controlled according to the requirements imposed by the final destination and/or environmental regulations.

Moreover, according to the type of plant and the method of plant operation, the sources of solids in a wastewater treatment plant can be realized. Solids may also be formed by interaction of waste streams in the sewer.

Wastewaters contain metal ions, such as iron, aluminum, copper, magnesium etc. from corrosion of the process equipment, chemicals used in treating cooling water, salts in the water intake, and chemicals used in processing.

Insoluble metal hydroxide floc may be formed when alkaline wastes are discharged and raise the pH of wastewater above neutral. The wastes containing considerable concentrations of phenols, sulfides, emulsifying agents and alkalines should be segregated. In general, discharging of any material to the oily sewer system or other drainage systems should be investigated for the final waste treatment and disposal targets.

In view of the above, this book will unravel the fundamental engineering for waste recovery, treatment, and disposal systems in the petroleum, chemical, and unconventional oil and gas processing industries. These new fundamental discoveries will enable the development of practical solutions to these pressing environmental issues.

Dr. Alireza Bahadori