Thanks in large part to advances in medical science and technology, we are living in a society that is rapidly aging, and many of us will live well into the older adult years. Members of the baby boom generation are now celebrating their 65th birthday in increasing numbers, so the ranks of the older adult age group are continuing to swell. It is no wonder that developmental researchers and practitioners are turning their attention to this important period of the adult life span.

My interest in aging and older adulthood began as an undergraduate psychology major at Washington University in St. Louis when I enrolled in a course on the psychology of aging taught by the late Dr. Robert Kleemeier. After earning my PhD degree in Psychology at Saint Louis University, I had the opportunity to return to Washington University as a postdoctoral fellow in the longstanding Aging and Development Program headed at that time by Dr. Jack Botwinick. This was the beginning of my career in the field of aging.

During my years at Washington University, including two as a postdoctoral fellow and additional time as a research associate, I conducted studies on aging and taught upper-division undergraduate courses in the psychology of aging and social gerontology. When I joined the psychology faculty of Florida International University, I continued teaching undergraduate courses, and I also taught graduate courses and seminars on adult development and aging. As I was teaching these courses, the thought of writing a book on aging and older adulthood was always in the back of my mind and gradually my ideas began to take shape. The book I envisioned would focus on up-to-date theories and research on issues central to aging and older adulthood. Research findings are the basis for what we know and will always be the guiding force for what still needs investigating. The book I envisioned would also include relatable scenarios that touch upon real-world issues faced by older adults.

My book explains how research studies attempt to answer questions of both theoretical and practical importance as they relate to aging and older adulthood. I explain the hypotheses and findings of the studies I included in a manner that is not oversimplified but at the same time should be comprehensible to readers who may have limited experience in conducting research themselves. In some instances, I describe studies that report conflicting findings, and I offer suggestions to explain why the results of these studies may have differed. Such is the nature of science and my goal is to raise students’ awareness of this. At the same time, I make every effort to tie together the research themes and findings so that they tell a coherent story.

What’s New in This Edition?

Research on aging and older adulthood is an ongoing endeavor that is constantly leading to new ideas and fresh insights. The research I cite in this edition is substantially updated. New to this edition are:

• Updated content, with approximately 100 new references that reflect the latest research in the study of aging, such as neurological findings on brain structure and functioning as well as factors that influence cognitive functioning, health-care decision making, and social relationships.
• New Close-ups on Adulthood and Aging that appear at the beginning of each chapter. These close-ups are sketches, or vignettes, about the life of one or several older adults. Throughout the chapter, the reader is referred back to the older adult(s) that were featured in the opening close-up.
• New Understanding Aging boxes throughout the book that highlight phenomena of recent interest. Examples are Stereotype Embodiment Theory, Executive Function in brain processing, prevention of falls in older adults, the Stability-Plasticity-Flexibility perspective on neural development, age-related differences in interpreting ambiguous emotional situations, Age and Altruism, the Age-Stereotype paradox, the importance of Awareness of Aging for self-concept and personal identity, cohabitation among older couples, the role of stepgrandmothers, technology training for older job seekers, the Temporal Process Model of Retirement, Dealing with Time in Retirement, Symptoms of Caregiver Stress, Frontotemporal Dementia, the Death Café Movement, and the Broken Heart Syndrome. These boxes describe recent research findings that provide a deeper insight into the aging process.
• Questions to Consider at the end of each chapter stimulate readers to think about how the information in the chapter relates to them personally.
• An end-of-book glossary with definitions of key terms from all 13 chapters, including a number of new terms that appear for the first time in this edition.

Theoretical Models

An important goal in writing this book was to present two theoretical frameworks that would lend cohesion to the material covered. The Selective Optimization with Compensation Model and the Ecological Model are described in detail in the initial chapter. These two theoretical models complement each other and both are able to subsume research findings that indicate people experience changes as they age. At the same time, these models allow a great potential for successful aging. At the end of each chapter, I revisit these models and discuss how they can be applied to the topics covered. I do this to demonstrate that theoretical models are an effective mechanism for gaining a deeper understanding of what is known as well as what we still need to learn about aging and older adulthood.

Integrated Themes: Diversity, Environment, and Applications

As in previous editions, information related to diversity is integrated into the text. Each chapter includes examples of how findings may vary across racial, ethnic, and gender groups and for people who live in different countries. This book also provides integrated coverage on how environmental factors may influence the aging process. In addition, attention is given to the application of research findings to the everyday lives of older adults.

Layout of the Book

Aging and Older Adulthood, fourth edition, has 13 chapters, an ideal length for one-semester undergraduate courses or for basic reading in a graduate proseminar. Although it is not essential, I suggest that for maximum clarity, the chapters be covered in order.

Chapter 1 introduces the topic of aging and older adulthood and gives a brief history of how the study of aging got started and how age is defined. In addition, it includes updated information on the characteristics of the older adult population and the influences that are assumed to play a role in the aging process. At the end of this chapter, I introduce the two theoretical models that will be revisited in the final section of each subsequent chapter.

Chapter 2 lays the groundwork for approaches taken in the study of aging and older adulthood as well as the advantages and disadvantages of the research designs that can be used. It also touches upon topics related to measurement, sampling, and ethics. It introduces two recent trends in conducting research, the mega-analytic approach and the meta-analytic approach, both of which combine information across several studies. Overall, this chapter contains information that is important for understanding and evaluating the research findings in substantive areas that are covered in the chapters that follow.

Chapter 3 includes topics of interest to both biologists and psychologists. How long can we expect to live, to what extent is biological aging under our control, and what can we do to ensure a high quality of life in older adulthood? What kinds of changes in body systems can we expect with normal aging and how can we compensate for any changes that occur? In this edition, figures on the leading causes of death are updated, as are those for life expectancy at birth and at ages 65 and 75. New to this edition is information on obesity in the older population and the importance of diet and exercise for reducing health risks in older adulthood. Also new is discussion of the influence positive self-stereotypes may have on older adults’ physical and functional health. In addition, a discussion of spousal influence on promoting health in older couples is included. The concept of executive functioning in the brain is discussed. Also included is the recent revision of the theoretical STAC model, the scaffolding theory of aging and cognition-revised (STAC-r), which emphasizes factors such as education, physical fitness, and vascular health, all of which can promote neural enrichment over the life span. Neural enrichment, together with compensatory neural scaffolding, may explain how older adults maintain a normal level of cognitive functioning even in the face of age-related neural changes.

Chapter 4 focuses on theories and research on sensory, perceptual, and attentional processes. There is detailed information on age-related changes in vision and hearing that is basic to the understanding of age-related changes in memory, problem solving, and social processes, which are covered in subsequent chapters. There is updated information on older adults’ use of technology and its possible influence on reaction time. Also discussed are recent statistics on older adults’ use of hearing aids as well as information on new technology that allows streaming from cell phones to hearing aids. Also included is a list of suggestions for communicating with older adults who have hearing loss. New to this chapter is information on reaction time and visual attention gleaned from large numbers of individuals who visited a cognitive testing website. In addition, there is information on driving ability, and the topic of driving and texting is introduced.

Chapter 5 is devoted to memory, a subject of great interest not only to aging researchers but also to individuals who are aging. An entire book could be written about memory and aging, but this chapter touches upon theories about how memory works, the characteristics of older adults’ memory, and what people believe to be true about memory and aging. This edition includes new information on how various areas of the brain are assumed to have different trajectories with regard to maturation and age-related decline. Accordingly, some types of memory are maintained to a later age than others. There is updated information on the efficacy of memory training strategies. Also included is a discussion regarding how societal values and belief structures about women, as well as about age, may ultimately influence level of cognition in older adult members of that society.

Chapter 6, on intellectual functioning, covers scientific views of intelligence and how level of intelligence is determined. It describes which intellectual abilities decline and which are maintained with increasing age. In addition to psychometric approaches, the concept of intelligence is applied to older adults’ competence in various aspects of their everyday lives. New to this chapter is information on performance of intellectual tasks obtained from the findings of Internet-based tests taken by individuals of all ages. Also included is the discussion of plasticity versus flexibility with regard to intellectual ability. There is updated information on the effects of training on older adults’ intellectual abilities as well as updated findings on the effects of activity engagement on cognitive functioning. Attention is given to the importance of rigorous scientific evaluation of the effects brain-training interventions, or “brain games,” on older adults’ cognitive functioning. Finally, an updated discussion of the meaning of financial capability and the possible reasons it can become compromised in older adulthood.

Chapter 7 has an applied focus and explores thinking and problem solving in the everyday world. For example, how do older adults use their cognitive capabilities in dealing with real-world situations such as solving social, moral, and interpersonal dilemmas or giving advice to others who are facing such dilemmas? How do older adults go about making decisions about their own health care or perhaps about more mundane consumer purchases? There is new material describing an abbreviated scale that taps three dimensions of wisdom (cognitive, reflective, and compassionate), as well as new research findings that support the likelihood that wisdom goes along with subjective feelings of well-being. Recent statistics are included on older adults’ rate of accessing the Internet to obtain the information they need to make decisions. Also, there is new information on the effectiveness of gain-framed versus loss-framed messages on the importance of participating in health-related behaviors such as exercise. As well, there is updated information on the number of options young versus older adults wish to have when they make both consumer and health-related decisions. Also included is new information on how young versus older adults interpret emotionally ambiguous scenarios. Finally, there is a description of older adults’ relationship with their middle-aged offspring in situations where the older adult seems in need of advice on making decisions in the face of limitations in physical and/or cognitive abilities.

Chapter 8 covers theories about personality and coping. It also discusses how lay people (nonscientists) view the personality traits of older adults. In addition, it covers topics related to self-concept and personal control, including strategies people use that can affect their quality of life in older adulthood. A new biographical sketch of a well-known figure in the field of gerontology includes her perceptions about her own aging and her general observations on personality in the later years. New material is introduced indicating that narrative identity begins to take shape early in life but ultimately plays an important role in forming a sense of self and purpose in life. Also included is new information on age stereotypes. For example, counter to the idea that older adults are self-centered and greedy, new research in the context of problem solving indicates that older adults often reason and behave in an altruistic manner. A recent suggestion is that a two-prong approach is needed to promote conditions that will increase the degree to which age stereotypes are positive and attenuate the degree to which they are negative. Newly included is the construct of Awareness of Aging, whereby calendar age plays a less important role than self-concept and personal identity when it comes to older adults’ motivation to participate in activities that promote healthy aging.

Chapter 9 examines social interaction and social ties in older adulthood. It describes prominent theories and discusses specific relationships (marital, intergenerational, grandparenthood, siblings, and friendship). New to this edition is research on the strengths and vulnerabilities of couple relationships in the later stages of life as well as updated information on same-sex couples, custodial grandfamilies, and the role of stepgrandmothers. There is updated information on nursing home residents’ rights and on elder mistreatment and neglect. Also featured is the recent interest in financial exploitation and efforts to measure older adults’ capacity for financial decision making.

Chapter 10 highlights aspects of life planning that hold great significance for older adults: employment, retirement, and living arrangements. What is typical for the work life and exit from the workforce for today’s older adults and what changes can we expect in the future? Also, what options do older adults have for living environments, and what are the advantages and disadvantages of each? There is new information on older workers’ participation in the labor force in the United States and other countries, as well as updated information on stereotypes that prevent older adults from being employed. Also included is recent information on the number of complaints that have been registered regarding age discrimination in employment. There is expanded discussion on Social Security, including how delayed retirement credit has blurred the concept of full retirement age. Also included is the Temporal Process Model, which is a new way of delineating the transition from work to retirement, as well as a discussion of how people deal with time in retirement. There is new information on older adults’ reasoning when it comes to making changes in living arrangements or aging in place. There is updated information on the extent to which older adults are making plans or actually reducing the possessions in their material convoy.

Chapter 11 discusses mental health services for older adults, the types of psychopathology that occur most frequently in the older adult population, and therapies that are most effective in treating problems that older adults experience. New to this chapter is a list of symptoms of caregiver stress. The disorders included in the chapter, which are those of greatest concern for the older age group, are categorized according to the latest diagnostic and statistical manual, DSM-5. There is expanded coverage of insomnia and sleep disorders and of substance-related and addictive disorders (including opioid dependence as well as alcohol). There is new information on screening for cognitive impairment, including a recent test that may be sensitive to milder levels of cognitive impairment. In addition to including the more common forms of dementia, the chapter highlights a case study of frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Finally, there is an updated set of guidelines on differentiating signs of dementia from typical age-related forgetting.

Chapter 12 covers topics related to death, dying, and loss, which are critical episodes within the experience of living, and which may be quite different for older adults in the future. This chapter includes updated statistics on the death rate per 100,000 in various age groups in the United States. It also discusses the meaning of the durable power of attorney (POA), which can be used for health-care decisions or for financial decisions. New in this chapter is information on the Death Café Movement, a phenomenon that originated in Switzerland but has now reached the United Kingdom and other countries, including the United States. This chapter includes updated information on the status of physician assisted suicide (PAS), or physician aid in dying (PAD), in the United States. Finally, there is a discussion of a phenomenon called the broken heart syndrome.

Chapter 13 is a final brief but updated discussion that speculates on aging and older adulthood in the not-too-distant future. This chapter is intended to stimulate young adults to think about what the older years may be like when they enter that stage of life. It includes the topic of the possible need to work in the later years as well as the availability of health care. It also discusses the likelihood of greater gender crossover, with women entering the workforce earlier and having career trajectories with fewer interruptions and with men playing a greater role in caregiving. The sandwich generation may be older in the future, and adult grandchildren may play a more important role in family caregiving for the older generation. The rate of technology use is increasing among the older population, and there is discussion of the increasingly important role technology will play in helping older adults to accomplish everyday tasks and keep in touch with family and friends at a distance. This chapter includes an updated discussion of third-agers’ motivations to consider or actually make changes in their living arrangements that will serve their needs in the fourth age. The creation of age-friendly communities is discussed, as well as the recognition of Green House movement as a path to high-quality living environments for older adults.

Student Learning Aids

Each chapter opens with a vignette describing a real-world scenario about one or more older adults. Throughout the chapter, the reader is referred back to this vignette to demonstrate its connection to specific facts or theories. In addition, there are Questions to Consider at the end of the chapter that encourage readers to think about the meaning of the material. At the end of each chapter is a list of Key Points for review. Key Terms are highlighted in green and also listed at the end of each chapter. All key terms appear in the glossary at the end of the book.

Instructor Materials

Aging and Older Adulthood, fourth edition, comes with an Instructor Manual written by the author, which is available at the book’s website: www.wiley.com/go/erber4e. There is also a test bank with questions listed in the order in which the information occurs in the chapter. The test bank is followed by a set of short answer questions, with suggested responses. In addition to an Instructor Manual, the fourth edition comes with a set of PowerPoints for each chapter. These can be used as a visual aid by instructors who are teaching the course.

Acknowledgments

I wish to acknowledge those who played a role in my long career in the field of aging and the integration of my knowledge and experience in the form of this book. My initial undergraduate course with the now late Dr. Kleemeier at Washington University whetted my interest in this field of study. Subsequently, I was privileged to conduct research and teach in the Aging and Development Program of Washington University in St. Louis with Dr. Martha Storandt and the late Dr. Jack Botwinick. My years at Washington University were highly influential in my thinking and motivation for writing this book. Later on, the suggestions and encouragement I received from my former Saint Louis University PhD adviser, the now late Dr. Donald H. Kausler, were invaluable. Writing a textbook is a major undertaking, and his early encouragement played an important role in my bringing the project to fruition. Also, I acknowledge my students, who provided me with their views of the aging process and for whom I hope this book will open the door to continued interest and pursuit of careers in the field.

I wish to express my gratitude to the following individuals, whose constructive criticism and excellent feedback contributed to the quality of the fourth edition: Rebecca MacAulay and William J. Hoyer.

Finally, I thank Darren Reed, then Commissioning Editor at Wiley-Blackwell who initially encouraged me to produce the fourth edition of Aging and Older Adulthood and who was Editor of previous editions and signed this edition. I am also grateful to Dominic Bibby, Project Editor, who consistently provided expert professional guidance as I was working on the completion of this fourth edition. In addition, I am grateful to Darren Lalonde, Executive Editor; Monica Rogers, Program Assistant; Patty Maher, Marketing Manager; Liz Wingett, Senior Project Editor; Rudrangsh Basu, Permissions Specialist; Janet Robbins, Picture Researcher; Natasha Wu, Production Editor; R Kannathal and the copyediting team at SPi Global, who provided the much-needed technical assistance necessary to produce the book in its final form.