Grammar Essentials For Dummies®
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When you’re a grammarian, people react to you in interesting — and sometimes downright strange — ways. An elderly man once asked me about something that had puzzled him for eight decades: Why did his church, St. Paul’s, include an apostrophe in its name? My nephew recently called to inquire whether his company’s sign in Times Square should include a semicolon. (I said no, though the notion of a two-story-tall neon semicolon was tempting.) Lots of people become tongue-tied, sure that I’ll judge their choice of who or whom. (They worry needlessly, because I consider myself off-duty when I’m not teaching or writing.)
Though you may aspire to be something other than a grammarian, knowing how to use proper grammar is always an advantage — especially in the workplace. Most jobs that provide you with a desk (and many jobs that don’t!) demand that you know how to communicate in both speech and writing.
If you haven’t yet reached the workplace, now’s the best time to master good grammar. No matter what subject you’re studying, teachers favor proper English. Also, the SAT includes a writing section that’s heavy on grammar and, ironically, light on writing.
In this book, I show you the tricks of the grammar trade, the strategies that help you make the right decision when you’re facing such grammatical dilemmas as the choice between I and me or was and were. I explain what you need to do in such situations, and I also tell you why a particular word is correct or incorrect. You don’t have to memorize a list of meaningless rules (with the exception of some points from the punctuation chapter) because when you understand the reason for a particular choice, you’ll pick the correct word automatically.
I concentrate on what English teachers call the common errors. You don’t have to read this book in order, and you don’t have to read the whole thing. Just browse through the table of contents and look for things that you often get wrong. Or start with Chapter 1, which outlines the usage issues voted “most likely to succeed” — in giving you a headache. When you recognize something that nags you every time you write, jump to the chapter where I explain how to handle it like a pro.
When I introduce a term or concept that may be unfamiliar to you, I italicize it so you know I’m aware that jargon is at hand. I quickly follow it up with an explanation or definition so you can continue on with the topic.
I assume that you already speak English to some extent and that you want to speak it — and write it — better. I also assume that you’re a busy person with better things to do than worry about pronouns. This book is for you if you want
In the left margins of this book, you find the following four icons, each of which highlights a particular type of material:
This icon points out a nugget of information you’ll want to recall later, so make room for it in your mental filing cabinet.
Are you hoping to spend some time behind ivy-covered walls? To put it another way: Are you aiming for college? If so, you should pay special attention to the information next to this icon, because college-admissions testers love this material.
Wherever you see this icon, you’ll find helpful strategies for understanding sentence structure or choosing the correct word.
Not every grammar trick has a built-in trap, but some do. This icon tells you how to avoid common mistakes.
Need some pointers on how to improve your writing — fast? Jump to Chapter 11. Want to refresh your memory regarding punctuation regulations? Head straight for Chapter 7. Not sure where to begin? Chapter 1 can help.
I truly don’t mind where you start. Just allow me one last word before you do. Actually, two last words: Trust yourself. You already know a lot. If you’re a native speaker, you’ve communicated in English all your life, including the years before you set foot in school and saw your first textbook. If English is an acquired language for you, you’ve probably already absorbed a fair amount of vocabulary and grammar, even if you don’t know the technical terms.
I’m just here to help you refine what you know and get past any grammar gremlins that haunt you. So if the word grammar usually makes you sweat, wipe your brow and remember that nothing in this book is too difficult for you to master.
Chapter 1
IN THIS CHAPTER
Defining what grammar means
Identifying the problems grammar can solve
Bringing grammar into the real world
I’m well aware that you’ve been studying grammar in one form or another for a lot of years. You may have been in first or second grade when a teacher introduced the notion that different words in a sentence do different things: Some words name people, animals, and objects, for example, and other words indicate what those people, animals, and objects are doing.
If you were blessed with brilliant, enlightened teachers, your experience with grammar has led you to understand not only how to use it but also why it’s essential. However, because you’re holding this book in your hands, I suspect that may not have been the case. More likely, you were blessed with caring, dedicated teachers who followed a pattern of instruction handed down to them from teachers past. That pattern likely focused on memorizing parts of speech and diagramming sentences. And here you are, years later, trying to recall what indirect objects are and why you should care.
In this chapter, I explain how I approach the study of grammar in this book. A clue: I honestly don’t care whether you can identify an indirect object (a part of speech I describe in Chapter 4). I do, however, care a great deal about your ability to construct a complete sentence that communicates information clearly and meets the needs of your audience.
In the Middle Ages (a few years before I went to school), grammar meant the study of Latin, the language of choice for educated people. In fact, grammar was so closely associated with Latin that the word referred to any kind of learning. This meaning of grammar shows up when people of grandparent age talk about their grammar school, not their elementary school. The term grammar school is a leftover from the old days.
These days, grammar is the study of language — specifically, how words are put together. Because of obsessive English teachers and their rules, grammar also means a set of standards that you have to follow in order to speak and write better. However, the definition of better changes according to your situation, your purpose, and your audience. (I discuss this subject more in the final section of this chapter, as well as in Chapter 11, where I offer tips on how to become a better writer.)
Actually, several different types of grammar exist, including historical (how language has changed through the centuries) and comparative (how languages differ from or resemble each other). In this book, I deal with only two types of grammar — the two you need to know in order to improve your speech and writing:
Descriptive grammar: This type of grammar gives names to the parts of speech and parts of a sentence. When you learn descriptive grammar, you understand what every word is (its part of speech) and what every word does (its function in the sentence).
Knowing some grammar terms can help you understand why a particular word or phrase is correct or incorrect, so I sprinkle descriptive grammar terms throughout this book. However, you don’t need to be able to explain the difference between a participle and a gerund to use them correctly. My main purpose is to show you how to put words together in appropriate ways so you can write a school assignment, a report for work, or any other formal communication effectively. That’s why descriptive grammar plays second fiddle in this book to the type I describe in the next bullet.
So here’s the formula for success: A little descriptive grammar plus a lot of functional grammar equals better grammar overall.
When you get right down to it, the study of grammar is the study of three key issues: choosing the right words to get your point across to a reader or listener, putting those words in the right order, and (when you’re writing) inserting the correct punctuation marks (commas, apostrophes, and so on) in the correct places. In this section, I explain why each issue matters so much.
This issue is an umbrella that covers many grammar gremlins. Four of the biggest are selecting verb forms that match the subjects in your sentence, using the right pronouns, deciding between adjectives and adverbs, and choosing wisely between two (or more) words that sound similar or seem to be interchangeable (but aren’t).
Say you’re writing a sentence that describes what three people are doing:
Ralph, Lulu, and Stan is skipping through the woods.
Do you detect a problem? Even if you can’t put your finger on what’s wrong, you probably realize that something about this sentence doesn’t sound right. That “something” is the verb is, which doesn’t get along with Ralph, Lulu, and Stan.
In grammatical terms, what you have here is a subject-verb disagreement. The subject of a sentence is the noun (person, place, thing, or idea) that is doing or being something. The verb is the part of the sentence that explains what the subject is doing.
To make the multiple (or plural) subjects in this sentence play nice with the verb, you must change is to are:
Ralph, Lulu, and Stan are skipping through the woods.
Subject-verb agreement can get complicated sometimes, and I devote Chapter 2 to refreshing your memory about how to identify subjects and verbs and how to create harmony between them.
Allow me to tell you a riveting story:
My brother and me went to the store yesterday to look for some new dish towels. We looked in every department but couldn’t find it anywhere. We asked a salesman for help, but they couldn’t answer our question.
Aside from “riveting” being an out-and-out lie, can you figure out what’s wrong with this story? This example contains three grammatical errors, all of which are problems with pronoun selection.
A pronoun is a word that substitutes for a noun, and figuring out which pronoun to use in a sentence can sometimes be truly challenging. Choosing incorrectly can offend your reader’s ear and also create confusion.
To correct this story, you need to make the following changes (shown in italics):
My brother and I went to the store yesterday to look for some new dish towels. We looked in every department but couldn’t find them anywhere. We asked a salesman for help, but he couldn’t answer our question.
Not sure why you need I instead of me or he instead of they? Chapter 3 offers a detailed discussion of how to make good pronoun choices; be sure to check it out.
The reason you’re reading this chapter is that you want to write good, right? Actually, no. What you really want to do is to write well. The grammatical explanation is that good is always an adjective: a word used to describe nouns. Well, on the other hand, is usually an adverb: a word that describes a verb or modifies an adjective. But even if you never memorize the grammatical reason, you must know when to use good and when to use well.
Likewise, you need to know when to use an adjective versus when to use an adverb. Luckily, Chapter 6 provides all the details, so you’ll never again feel bad (as opposed to badly) about your writing.
If you’re going to write well, your word choices have to be correct. In some cases, you choose among several words that sound alike. In others, you choose between two words that most people (incorrectly) believe to be interchangeable. Sometimes the choices are tricky, but if you spend some time reading Chapter 9, I can help.
In this book, I commit a particular grammatical sin that wouldn’t be acceptable in a more formal type of writing: I write fragments, which are incomplete sentences. Like this one. And this one.
The opposite of a fragment is a run-on sentence: one that keeps going long after it should have stopped. For example, I create a run-on if I use a comma to try to join two complete sentences, I should use a semicolon or a conjunction (such as and, or, or but) instead. (That was intentional, mind you. I do have my certified grammarian’s license.)
Fragments and run-ons are two problems writers grapple with when trying to create complete sentences. Other problems can be a bit tougher to identify, such as combining ideas of unequal importance in ways that make them seem equal. Consider an example:
Technically, the combined sentence is okay. But are you really helping the reader understand what happened here? Just by changing and to a different connecting word, you can clarify what happened. For example:
I devote Chapter 4 to a thorough discussion of how to create complete sentences that provide the reader with an appropriate amount of information arranged in a helpful way.
Chapter 5 tackles still more issues related to word arrangement, such as making sentences parallel. Take a look at a sentence that isn’t parallel:
My goal is to study economics, Arabic, and impress my boss.
What you’re saying is that you plan to study three things, the third being “impress my boss.” Huh? By making the sentence parallel, you clarify for your reader what you actually mean:
My goal is to study economics, learn Arabic, and impress my boss.
By adding learn, you start each of the three items in your list with a verb, which makes the sentence parallel.
Chapter 5 deals with several other word arrangement issues as well, with the goal of helping you create clear, consistent writing.
Its a real shame, when you write a perfectly fine sentence; and mess it up with ‘improper’ punctuation.
We all need occasional reminders about how to use punctuation marks. So many rules exist, and not all of them make logical sense. Your job is not to argue the logic; it’s to apply the rules to every sentence you write. If you don’t, your boss, teacher, or other authority figure is likely to dismiss your written observations because he or she won’t be able to look past the errors to discover your brilliance.
To impress someone with your writing, you simply must know the punctuation rules and use punctuation marks correctly. That’s why I suggest getting very cozy with Chapter 7. After all,
It’s a real shame when you write a perfectly fine sentence and mess it up with improper punctuation.
Oh, and if you ever get confused about when to use capital letters and when to stick with lowercase, be sure to check out Chapter 8.
The grammar lessons in this book are useless if they don’t stick with you when you sit down to write. I strongly suggest keeping this book handy as a reference whenever you’re working on an assignment or report; I don’t expect you to memorize every punctuation or capitalization rule.
However, I work hard to bring the lessons in this book to life for you by providing lots of examples. The goal is for your “ear” — the part of your brain that can tell whether something you’ve written sounds right or wrong — to get lots of practice identifying common problems.
You can improve your grammar ear in lots of easy ways every day. Chapter 12 offers ten simple suggestions that range from reading good books, newspapers, and magazines to listening to news radio programs and watching quality TV shows in which the characters use proper English. (Think the History Channel, for example — not so much The Sopranos.)
The more you read and listen, the easier you’ll be able to identify situations in which formal (or standard) English is required and situations in which you can relax the rules a bit. In Chapter 11, I explain the differences between formal and conversational English and note that just about any important communication requires formal English.
You may have the impression, for example, that you can relax the grammar rules when you’re writing an e-mail or a text message. But as I explain in Chapter 11, the medium conveying your message isn’t the deciding factor; your audience is. Who is going to read your e-mail or text message? Your best friend? Break as many grammar rules as you want. Your boss or teacher? Keep it formal. Even if you suspect that the individual won’t mind a conversational tone, you don’t want to risk a miscommunication, and you don’t want a grammatically lax e-mail to be forwarded. Save yourself any potential embarrassment or hassle: Keep it formal.
Chapter 11 offers lots of other suggestions for improving your writing as well, including choosing juicy verbs and eliminating repetition. But in the end, the only way to improve your writing is to write. Reading a book — even one as astute and inspiring as this one — can take you only so far. Practice is essential, so dedicate a small amount of time every day to improving your speech and writing. Before long, you may start noticing billboards, store signs, and even newspaper headlines with grammatical errors. At that point, you’ll be ready to apply for your official grammarian’s license, too. (Calm down, now. Your heart may not be able to handle this much excitement.)