Edited by
Raman Singh
Baldev Raj
U. Kamachi Mudali
Prabhakar Singh
Copyright © 2019 by The American Ceramic Society. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Singh, Raman, 1959– editor.
Title: Non‐Destructive evaluation of corrosion and corrosion‐assisted cracking / edited by Raman Singh, Baldev Raj, U. Kamachi Mudali, Prabhakar Singh.
Description: Hoboken : Wiley‐American Ceramic Society, 2019. | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Description based on print version record and CIP data provided by publisher; resource not viewed.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018036498 (print) | LCCN 2018038143 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119428619 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119428534 (ePub) | ISBN 9781118350058 (hardcover)
Subjects: LCSH: Corrosion and anti‐corrosives–Testing. | Fracture mechanics. | Nondestructive testing.
Classification: LCC TA462 (ebook) | LCC TA462 .N586 2019 (print) | DDC 620.1/1223–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018036498
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © Rohit Mattoo/Getty Images
This unique book on nondestructive evaluation (NDE) of corrosion was conceived as a result of late Dr. Baldev Raj’s world renowned expertise in NDE and Professor Raman Singh’s complementary expertise in corrosion, when Dr. Raj was visiting Australia way back in 2009. Upon Dr. Raj’s initiative, Dr. Kamachi Mudali and Professor Prabhakar Singh joined the editorial team. It is truly sad that Dr. Baldev Raj is not physically with us to see the first edition of the book, but his inspiration will always be there with us.
Dr. Baldev Raj was born in Jammu Tawi, India, on 9 April 1947. At the time of his death on 6 January 2018, he was director of National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore. At that time, he was also chancellor of Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR) and chairman of Research Councils of Gas Turbine Research Establishment, DRDO, and Central Glass Ceramic Research Institute, CSIR. His pioneering research contributions in material characterization, testing, and evaluation using nondestructive evaluation methodologies have been recognized globally. He played a key leadership role for India achieving global leadership stature in fast breeder nuclear reactors with closed fuel cycles. He has made sustained contributions through research and development of nuclear materials, components and systems for water, fast spectrum, fusion reactors, and back‐end recycling plants. He has chaired Strategic Committee for Materials and Manufacturing (Ministry of Defence) and Rare Earths Leadership (NITI Aayog). His contributions to science policy and science diplomacy are widely acclaimed. Diversity of contributions is evident from his deep and effective engagement in areas ranging from cultural heritage to medical technology to education. He has rare distinction of being a fellow of all the four science and engineering academies in the country. He is a fellow of The World Academy of Sciences, International Nuclear Energy Academy, German Academy of Sciences, etc. He has over 1300 publications, over 80 books, over 100 articles in encyclopedia and handbooks, 22 patents, and 5 standards. He has received highest national and international honors and distinctions. He is recipient of numerous awards: Homi Bhabha Gold Medal; H. K. Firodia; Om Prakash Bhasin; Vasvik, Gujar Mal Modi Science and Technology Award, National Metallurgist; Lifetime Achievement of Indian Nuclear Society, Distinguished Material Scientist; 20th SIES Sri Chandrasekarendra Saraswati National Eminence Award for S&T; and Distinguished Alumni of Indian Institute of Science, to name a few. He also received the national honor of Padmashri. Late Dr. Baldev Raj was also known for his unique human touch and passion to interact with students and young professionals for mutual inspirations and service to society.
A. Bowler
Maritime Systems Project Office (MPSPO)
RAAF Base Edinburgh
Edinburgh
South Australia
Australia
M. Dorman
Aircraft Structural Integrity – Directorate General Technical Airworthiness (ASI‐DGTA)
RAAF Williams
Laverton
Victoria
Australia
Alec Groysman
Faculty of Chemical Engineering
Technion
Israel Institute of Technology
Haifa
Israel
J. Jayaraj
Corrosion Science and Technology Group
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research
Kalpakkam
India
R. Jones
Centre of Expertise in Structural Mechanics
Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering
Monash University
Clayton
Victoria
Australia
N. Jothilakshmi
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
Mumbai
India
U. Kamachi Mudali
Corrosion Science and Technology Group
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research
Kalpakkam
India
M. Lo
Centre of Expertise in Structural Mechanics
Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering
Monash University
Clayton
Victoria
Australia
M.B. Venkataraman
Research School of Engineering
The Australian National University
ACT
Australia
Paritosh Nanekar
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
Mumbai
India
Baldev Raj
National Institute of Advanced Studies
Bengaluru
India
V.S. Raja
Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Mumbai
India
B.P.C. Rao
Fast Reactor Fuel Cycle Facility
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research
Kalpakkam
India
D. Roles
Maritime Systems Project Office (MPSPO)
RAAF Base Edinburgh
Edinburgh
South Australia
Australia
Prabhakar Singh
Center for Clean Energy Engineering
University of Connecticut
Storrs, CT
USA
R.K. Singh Raman
Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering
Monash University
Clayton Campus (Melbourne)
Victoria
Australia
Girija Suresh
Corrosion Science and Technology Group
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research
Kalpakkam
India
B. Venkatraman
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research
Kalpakkam
India
S.A. Wade
Swinburne University of Technology
Hawthorn
Victoria
Australia
Corrosion represents an enormous challenge across all industries and commences and even impacts each one of us in our daily lives. For example, the corrosive degradation of artificial hips and knees, as we are now experiencing, is causing the replacement of many implants because of the toxicity of the corrosion products toward human tissue. This alone will cost the medical system in the United States many billions of dollars by the time that the problem is corrected. I could cite many other examples, including repair and replacement of infrastructure (roads, bridges, and building, because these structures have been compromised by chloride‐induced rebar corrosion, particularly in the northeast and in mountain regions of the country). The cause of the problem has been traced to the use of road salts and/or the use of calcium chloride as a “setting agent” when pouring concrete in freezing weather. This is a good example of an “unintended consequence.” While the causes of such corrosion maladies are well known and have been well articulated, the first line of defense is to detect and characterize the developing corrosion damage without compromising the performance of the system itself. This is done through “nondestructive testing (NDT),” which is the subject of this outstanding book. Finally, the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM E1316, “Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations”) defines nondestructive examination (NDE) as the development and application of technical methods to examine materials or components in ways that do not impair future usefulness and serviceability in order to detect, locate, measure, and evaluate flaws. The reader will note that the definition is comprehensive in that it is just not detection that is at issue but it is also characterization of the damage that is important.
The book begins with an overview of NDT by the editorial team led by Professor Raman Singh, which is both comprehensive and informative. Importantly, this overview makes the case and paves the way for subsequent chapters. As noted by the editor, NDT or nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques are therefore essential for the early and accurate detection of corrosion and corrosion‐induced damage, including general, pitting, and crevice corrosion and of hydrogen embrittlement, stress corrosion cracking, and corrosion fatigue in systems under active mechanical loading. Thus, the first chapter of this book articulates the principles of key NDE techniques and identifies which techniques are particularly suitable for detecting corrosion and corrosion‐assisted cracking. This is followed by a chapter on different forms of corrosion as well as brief descriptions of their underlying mechanisms. After the two introductory chapters on NDE and corrosion, the following two present case studies on applications of NDE techniques for online corrosion detection and monitoring in critical applications, e.g. nuclear power plants. Subsequent chapters describe specific NDE techniques, such as electrochemical impendence spectroscopy (EIS), electrochemical noise analysis (ENA), acoustic emission (AE), and thermography (T). Importantly, these chapters describe in detail the application of the various techniques in detecting corrosion in specific industries (e.g. aerospace and transportation) or specific corrosion phenomenon (such as corrosion scale cracking and spallation), again with the support of case studies. The final chapter is dedicated to NDE for online corrosion monitoring.
Inspection is also an integral part of NDT or NDE and includes visual testing (VT), liquid penetrant testing (LPT), magnetic particle testing (MPT), eddy current testing (ECT), and in situ metallography (ISM). Inspection techniques can be divided into surface examination, volumetric examination methods, and performance testing. Thus, VT, LPT, and ISM are examples of surface inspection methods, while MPT, ECT, radiography testing (RT), and ultrasonic testing (UT) are examples of volumetric examination techniques. Performance tests include leak testing (LT) and acoustic emission testing (AET). These techniques are vital for the in situ characterization of the extent of damage.
The material contained in this book on EIS and ENA are close to my heart, as I have used both to detect and characterize numerous corrosion systems. Thus, EIS, which has been applied to a variety of corrosion systems, is a perturbation/response technique that is based on linear systems theory (LST) for which a firm and broad mathematical basis exists. Its principal advantages are that it is a steady‐state technique, it can be applied over a very wide frequency range, and it transfers an enormous amount of information to the observer. Its principal disadvantage is that in order to take full advantage of EIS, it is necessary to possess mathematical skills. Thus, while most EIS studies end in characterizing a “equivalent electrical circuit (EEC),” its real power lies in reaction mechanism analysis (RMA). In RMA one seeks to define reaction mechanisms in terms of charge transfer and coupled chemical reactions. Fortunately, a number of excellent textbooks exist on EIS that describe in detail how RMA is affected. The application of EIS in the analysis of organic coatings, passive films, anodic oxide films, localized corrosion, atmospheric corrosion, fouling, and concrete structures is reviewed in the book.
ENA is related to EIS (in fact the impedance of a system can be determined from the natural fluctuations in potential and current) but is non‐perturbative in nature. Potential and current fluctuations emanating from corroding surfaces carry information about the type of corrosion process and the corrosion rate, but its extraction requires a mathematical skill level that, like EIS, is usually above that possessed by corrosion scientists and specialists in NDE. Because it is non‐perturbative, ENA is the corrosionist’s stethoscope. Just like a physician useful information requires a skill level that can prize the information from the recorded noise, as noted above. This information can only be extracted by using sophisticated data analysis techniques, such as wavelet analysis (WA), maximum entropy analysis (MEA), and power spectral density analysis (PSDA). Although the fluctuations in current and potential are often stated to be random (stochastic), the noise is actually deterministic in nature because they arise from processes occurring on the metal surface and are interrelated by the impedance.
The material contained in this book is directly related to the risk equation, R = P × C, where P is the probability that an event (e.g. SCC) will occur and C are the consequences. NDE primarily articulates P. The consequences, C, however, are often imposed legislatively, such as in the case of spillage from a pipeline. However, it is their coupling that defines the risk, R. Thus, the consequences for the environment on rupture of a water pipeline are generally small (and maybe even beneficial in some respects), whereas spillage from an oil pipeline can and usually does have severe consequences. Thus management of risk is usually accomplished by controlling P. It is therefore obvious that NDE is a vital part of controlling risk.
Although the benefits of NDE are clearly apparent, there does not currently exist a comprehensive book on the principles underlying NDE or their application in specific industrial systems. This book goes a long way to fulfilling that need, in spite of the fact that it focuses on environmentally induced damages (corrosion). As such, the book represents a considerable resource in detecting and characterizing corrosion across industries ranging from rail infrastructure, offshore petroleum production, and power generation to aging aircraft. I therefore rate this book to be a “must” for anyone who is involved in NDE.
Digby Macdonald
FRSC, FRSNZ, FNACE, FECS, FISE, FIC, FASM, FWIC
Khwarizmi Laureate in Fundamental science, Doctuer Honoris Causa‐INSA Lyon, Faraday Memorial Trust Gold Medalist, Gibbs Award Recipient (IAPWS), De Tao Master, Frumkin Medalist, OLIN Palladium Medalist
Professor in Residence, Departments of Nuclear Engineering and Materials Science and Engineering, University of California at Berkeley.
Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Materials Science and Engineering, Penn State University
Corrosion of engineering alloys and the mitigation measures continue to cost dearly (1–4% of GDP of any developed economy, which translates to an annual loss of ~$250 billion to the United States). The problem of corrosion is endemic to a large cross section of industries and affects our daily lives. For example, in the United States, there are more trips per day over structurally deficient bridges than there are McDonald’s hamburgers eaten in the entire United States [1]. The significance of corrosion is further illustrated by the June 2007 Report to Congress by the Under Secretary of the Department of Defense (DoD) (Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics) [2]. This report estimated the cost of corrosion associated with US DoD systems alone to be between US$10 billion and US$20 billion annually.
Traditional approaches such as use of corrosion resistance alloys and coatings have brought significant mitigation of the age‐old problem of corrosion. However, a durable corrosion resistance is still a nontrivial challenge in some critical applications, where aggressive corrosive solutions are handled (e.g. concentrated chloride solutions in desalination plants) or where corrosion resistance is required for very long durations (e.g. nuclear waste containers) or where corrosion can cause serious health problems (such as degradation of human implants). It will be socially fulfilling as well as commercially attractive to completely circumvent corrosion, which is often prohibitively challenging. This challenge emphasizes the need of an early and accurate detection and assessment of corrosion that are crucial for timely mitigation/repair.
Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques are, therefore, invaluable for an early and accurate detection of corrosion and corrosion‐assisted cracking. To this end, the first chapter of this book describes principles of key NDE techniques, with elaborations of those techniques that are particularly suitable for detection of corrosion and corrosion‐assisted cracking. This is followed by a chapter on different forms of corrosion as well as brief descriptions of their underlying mechanisms.
On the solid footings of the two introductory chapters on NDE and corrosion, the following two chapters present case studies on applications of NDE techniques for detection and online monitoring of corrosion in some critical applications (such as nuclear power plants). Subsequent chapters present specific NDE techniques (viz. thermography, electrochemical impendence spectroscopy, electrochemical noise, acoustic emission) and their applications in detection of corrosion in specific industry (such as aerospace) or specific corrosion phenomenon (such as corrosion scale cracking and spallation), again with the support of case studies. The final chapter is dedicated to NDE for online corrosion monitoring.
The magnitude of losses and risks caused by corrosion is immense. Though it is invaluable to accomplish early detection of corrosion by NDE, there seems to be no resource/book on the topic of NDE of corrosion and corrosion‐assisted cracking. As such this is a maiden attempt to accomplish a formidable resource on NDE of corrosion across industries that range from rail infrastructure, offshore, and power generation to aging aircraft. Editorial team is grateful to the true international experts from each of the component areas on the topic of the application of NDE to corrosion, who have contributed to this book.
Professor Raman Singh
Dr. Baldev Raj
Dr. U. Kamachi Mudali
Professor Prabhakar Singh