Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Dedication

Preface

Section I: Chemistry of Explosives

Chapter 1: Organic Chemical Nomenclature
1. 1.1 Basic Organic Structures
2. 1.2 Alkanes
3. 1.3 Alkenes
4. 1.4 Alkynes
5. 1.5 Cyclic Forms
6. 1.6 Aromatics
7. 1.7 Polycyclic Aromatic Structures
Chapter 2: Oxidation
1. 2.1 Oxidation Reactions
2. 2.2 Effects of Stoichiometry
3. 2.3 Reaction Product Hierarchy
4. 2.4 Oxygen Balance
Chapter 3: Pure Explosives
1. 3.1 Grouping Explosives by Structure
2. 3.2 Aromatic Pure Explosive Compounds
3. 3.3 Aliphatic Explosive Compounds
4. 3.4 Inorganic Explosives
Chapter 4: Use Forms of Explosives
1. 4.1 Pressings
2. 4.2 Castables
3. 4.3 Plastic Bonded (PBX)
4. 4.4 PUTTIES
5. 4.5 Rubberized
6. 4.6 Extrudables
7. 4.7 Binary
8. 4.8 Blasting Agents
9. 4.9 Slurries and Aqueous Gels
10. 4.10 Dynamites
Chapter 5: Estimating Properties of Explosives
1. 5.1 Estimation of Theoretical Maximum Density
2. 5.2 Estimation of Detonation Velocity AT TMD
3. 5.3 Detonation Velocity as a Function of Density
4. 5.4 Estimating Detonation Velocity of Mixtures
5. 5.5 Estimating Detonation Pressure
Chapter 6: Decomposition
1. 6.1 Decomposition Reactions
2. 6.2 Thermal Stability Tests
3. 6.3 Chemical Compatibility
4. References

Section II: Energetics of Explosives

Chapter 7: Basic Terms of Thermodynamics
1. 7.1 Energy
2. 7.2 Temperature and Heat
3. 7.3 Internal Energy
4. 7.4 Energy in Transition: Heat and Work
5. 7.5 Energy Units
6. 7.6 Enthalpy
Chapter 8: Thermophysics
1. 8.1 Heat Capacity of Gases
2. 8.2 Heat Capacity of Liquids
3. 8.3 Heat Capacity of Solids
4. 8.4 Latent Heat of Fusion
5. 8.5 Heat of Vaporization
6. 8.6 Heat of Transition
7. 8.7 Summary
Chapter 9: Thermochemistry
1. 9.1 Heat of Reaction
2. 9.2 Heat of Formation
3. 9.3 Heats of Reaction from Heats of Formation
4. 9.4 Heat of Combustion
5. 9.5 Heat of Detonation or Explosion
6. 9.6 Heat of Afterburn
Chapter 10: Group Additivity
1. 10.1 Group Additivity Notation
2. 10.2 Data for the Ideal Gas State
3. 10.3 Data for the Solid State
Chapter 11: Reaction Temperature
1. 11.1 Reaction Temperature at Constant Pressure
2. 11.2 Reaction Temperature at Constant Volume
Chapter 12: Closed-Vessel Calculations
1. 12.1 Effect of Free Volume
2. 12.2 Heat Produced
3. 12.3 Temperature of the Gases
4. 12.4 Pressure in the Vessel
5. 12.5 Summary
Chapter 13: Estimating Detonation Properties
1. 13.1 KJ Assumed Product Hierarchy
2. 13.2 Detonation Velocity
3. 13.3 Detonation (CJ) Pressure
4. 13.4 Modifications of the KJ Method
5. References

Section III: Shock Waves

Chapter 14: Qualitative Description of a Shock Wave
1. 14.1 Stress-Strain
2. 14.2 Sound, Particle, and Shock Velocities
3. 14.3 Attenuation Behind Shock Waves
Chapter 15: The Bead Model
1. 15.1 Arrangement of the Model
2. 15.2 Wave and Particle Velocity
3. 15.3 Energy Partition
4. 15.4 Density Changes
Chapter 16: Rankine-Hugoniot Jump Equations
1. 16.1 Mass Balance
2. 16.2 Momentum Balance
3. 16.3 Energy Balance
Chapter 17: The Hugoniot Planes, U-u, P-v, P-u
1. 17.1 The Hugoniot
2. 17.2 The U-u Plane
3. 17.3 The P-v Plane
4. 17.4 The P-u Plane
Chapter 18: Interactions of Shock Waves
1. 18.1 Impact of Two Slabs
2. 18.2 Shock at a Material Interface Case a, Z_A < Z_B
3. 18.3 Shock at a Material Interface Case b, Z_A > Z_B
4. 18.4 Collision of Two Shock Waves
5. 18.5 Summary of Shock Waves and Interactions
Chapter 19: Rarefaction Waves
1. 19.1 Development of a Rarefaction Wave
2. 19.2 Interactions Involving Rarefactions
3. 19.3 Summary of Rarefactions
4. References

Section IV: Detonation

Chapter 20: Detonations, General Observations
1. 20.1 Simple Theory of Steady Ideal Detonation
2. 20.2 Estimating Detonation Parameters
3. 20.3 Detonation Interactions
4. 20.4 Summary
Chapter 21: Real Effects in Explosives
1. 21.1 The Reaction Zone
2. 21.2 Diameter Effects
3. 21.3 Density Effects
4. 21.4 Temperature Effects
5. 21.5 Geometry Effects (L/D)
6. 21.6 Summary
7. References

Section V: Initiation and Initiators

Chapter 22: Theories of Initiation
1. 22.1 Initiation of Deflagration
2. 22.2 Initiation of Detonation
3. 22.3 Deflagration-to-Detonation Transition
Chapter 23: Nonelectric Initiators
1. 23.1 Flame or Spark Initiators
2. 23.2 Friction-Initiated Devices
3. 23.3 Stab Initiators
4. 23.4 Percussion Initiators
5. 23.5 Energy-Power Relationship
Chapter 24: Hot-Wire Initiators
1. 24.1 Electric Matches
2. 24.2 Electric Blasting Caps
3. 24.3 Short Lead and Connectorized Initiators
4. 24.4 Energy-Power Relationship
5. 24.5 Firing at Minimum Energy
6. 24.6 Safety Considerations in Design
7. 24.7 Quality Control Testing
Chapter 25: Exploding Bridgewire Detonators
1. 25.1 Construction of EBWs
2. 25.2 Explosion of the Bridgewire
3. 25.3 Detonation of Initial Pressing
4. 25.4 Effects of Cables
5. 25.5 Function Time
6. 25.6 Series and Parallel Firing Considerations
7. 25.7 Safety Considerations
8. References

Section VI: Engineering Applications

Chapter 26: Theories of Scaling
1. 26.1 Units and Dimensions
2. 26.2 Scaling by Geometric Similarity
3. 26.3 Scaling by Dimensional Analysis
4. 26.4 Work Functions or Available Energy
Chapter 27: Acceleration, Formation, and Flight of Fragments
1. 27.1 Acceleration of the Gurney Model
2. 27.2 Fragmentation of Cylinders
3. 27.3 Flight of Fragments
Chapter 28: Blast Effects in Air, Water, and on the Human Body
1. 28.1 Scaling Air Shock
2. 28.2 Scaling Shocks in Water
3. 28.3 Physiological Response to Air Blast
Chapter 29: Scaling Craters
1. 29.1 Crater Formation Mechanisms
2. 29.2 Surface Bursts
3. 29.3 Above-Surface Bursts
4. 29.4 Buried Bursts
Chapter 30: Jetting, Shaped Charges, and Explosive Welding
1. 30.1 Shaped Charges
2. 30.2 Explosive Welding
3. References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1. (a) Carbon; (b) single-bonded carbons; (c) double-bonded carbons; and (d) triple-bonded carbons.
Figure 1.2. Three simple hydrocarbon molecules.
Figure 1.3. Alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons): (a) methane, (b) ethane, (c) propane, and (d) butane.
Figure 1.4. (a)–(c) Butylbromide.
Figure 1.5. (a) 1-Bromobutane; (b) 2-bromobutane.
Figure 1.6. 2-Methylpentane (this material is also called isohexane).
Figure 1.7. Structural formula of 2-methyl-2,3-dibromopentane: (a) pentane is the major chain; therefore, there is a straight saturated five-carbon chain as the major backbone; (b) 2-methyl-; there is a methyl group on the number two carbon; (c) -2,3-dibromo; dibromo means two bromine atoms, and they are on the number 2 and 3 carbons; (d) the rest of the bonds are not specified; therefore, they are all bonded to hydrogen; thus we have 2-methyl-2,3-dibromopentane.
Figure 1.8. 2-Pentene.
Figure 1.9. 1,4-Hexadiene.
Figure 1.10. Structural formula of 5,6-dibromo-l,3-hexadiyne: (a) the hexadiyne ending means that the major chain has six carbons and that there are two triple bonds in the chain. Since it is 1,3-hexadiyne, the triple bonds must be between the number 1 and 2 carbons and between the number 3 and 4 carbons. (b) The 5,6-dibromo, of course, indicates two bromine atoms, one each bonded to the number 5 and 6 carbons.
Figure 1.11. (a) Cyclopropane; (b) cyclohexane.
Figure 1.12. 1,3,4-Tribromo-cyclopentane.
Figure 1.13. 1,3-cyclohexadiene.
Figure 1.14. 3,5-dibromo-1-cyclopentene: (a) the 1-cyclopentene indicates that this is a five-carbon ring with one double bond in it, and that bond is between the number 1 and 2 carbons. (b) 3,5-Dibromo means that there are two bromine atoms, one each bonded to the number 3 and 5 carbons. (c) The rest of the bonds are to hydrogen; thus we have the complete formula.
Figure 1.15. The benzene molecule.
Figure 1.16. Symbol for the benzene molecule.
Figure 1.17. Symbol for phenyl, the benzene molecule with one hydrogen removed.
Figure 1.18. Phenylbromide molecule.
Figure 1.19. Phenylene-1,3-dibromide or 1,3-dibromophenylene.
Figure 1.20. o-Dibromobenzene (1,2-dibromobenzene).
Figure 1.21. m-Dibromobenzene (1,3-dibromobenzene).
Figure 1.22. p-Dibromobenzene (1,4-dibromobenzene).
Figure 1.23. (a) Toluene; (b) xylene (o shown); (c) mesitylene; (d) styrene; (e) cumene; and (f) cymene (p shown).
Figure 1.24. Fused polycyclics: (a) naphthalene; (b) anthracene; (c) phenanthrene.
Figure 1.25. Ring assemblies: (a) biphenyl; (b) p-terphenyl (c) m-terphenyl.
Figure 1.26. 3,3′-Dichloro-5,5′-dibromobiphenyl. (a) Biphenyl (a two-ring assembly); (b) 3,3′-dichloro indicates two chlorine atoms, one each on the number 3 and 3′ carbons; (c) 5,5′-dibromo indicates two bromines, one each on the number 5 and 5′ carbons.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1. Specific energy output from burning methane with oxygen as a function of the molar ratio of oxidizer to fuel.
Figure 2.2. Nitroglycol.
Figure 2.3. Nitroglycerine (overoxidized).
Figure 2.4. RDX (underoxidized).
Figure 2.5. TNT (very underoxidized).

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1. Structural organization of pure explosive compounds.
Figure 3.2. Trinitrobenzene, TNB.
Figure 3.3. First nitration step to mononitrobenzene.
Figure 3.4. Nitration steps to make TNB.
Figure 3.5. Trinitrotoluene, TNT.
Figure 3.6. Trinitrobenzoic acid, TNBA.
Figure 3.7. (a) Trinitroaniline, TNA; (b) tetranitroaniline.
Figure 3.8. (a) Tetryl; (b) ethyl tetryl.
Figure 3.9. Picric acid.
Figure 3.10. Ammonium picrate.
Figure 3.11. Trinitroanisol.
Figure 3.12. Ethylpicrate.
Figure 3.13. Trinitrochlorobenzene.
Figure 3.14. Trinitroxylene, TNX.
Figure 3.15. Trinitrocresol.
Figure 3.16. Trinitroresorcinol.
Figure 3.17. Lead styphnate.
Figure 3.18. Triaminotrinitrobenzene, TATB.
Figure 3.19. Hexanitroazobenzene, HNAB.
Figure 3.20. Hexanitrostilbene, HNS.
Figure 3.21. Tetranitrodibenzotetrazapentalene, TACOT.
Figure 3.22. Tetranitrocarbazole, TNC.
Figure 3.23. Methyl nitrate.
Figure 3.24. Nitroglycol.
Figure 3.25. Nitroglycerine, NG.
Figure 3.26. Erythritol tetranitrate.
Figure 3.27. Mannitol hexanitrate.
Figure 3.28. Pentaerythritol tetranitrate, PETN.
Figure 3.29. Pentaerythritol trinitrate, PETRIN.
Figure 3.30. Ethylenedinitramine, EDNA.
Figure 3.31. Nitroguanidine, NQ.
Figure 3.32. Nitro urea.
Figure 3.33. Cyclo-1,3,5-trimethylene-2,4,6-trinitamine, RDX.
Figure 3.34. Cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine, HMX.
Figure 3.35. Tetranitroglycolurile, Sorguyl.
Figure 3.36. Mercury fulminate.
Figure 3.37. Lead azide.
Figure 3.38. Silver azide.
Figure 3.39. Ammonium nitrate.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1. 1,3-Dinitropropane compound.
Figure 5.2. 2,2-Dinitropropane compound.
Figure 5.3. 1,1-Dintropropane compound.
Figure 5.4. (a) Alkylamine; (b) alkylamide.
Figure 5.5. Secondary nitramines.
Figure 5.6. Terminateci ethylenenitrate.
Figure 5.7. 2,2-Dinitropropyl groups.
Figure 5.8. RDX, hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine.
Figure 5.9. HNS, 2,2′,4,4′,6,6′-hexanitrostilbene.
Figure 5.10. A liquid, nitroglycerine.
Figure 5.11. PF (fluorinated solid explosive).
Figure 5.12. Data for D and ρ_o of PETN compared to the Urizer estimate.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1. DTA thermogram of HMX.
Figure 6.2. TGA for pure HMX.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1. Plot of heat added versus absolute temperature, water, 1 atm pressure.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 N-butane.
Figure 10.2 N-butene.
Figure 10.3 N-butyne.
Figure 10.4 TNT.
Figure 10.5 PETN.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Temperature versus enthalpy for an adiabatic reaction.
Figure 11.2 Trial and graph method of solving cubic equation in T_a.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Comparison of ideal and Nobel-Abel EOSs for a typical explosive or propellant product gas mixture at a temperature of 3500 K.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Molar ratio of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide in reaction products versus loading density for six explosives.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 A typical stress-strain curve.
Figure 14.2 Compressive stress-strain curve to very high stress level.
Figure 14.3 A pressure wave at high pressure.
Figure 14.4 Shocking-up of a pressure wave.
Figure 14.5 Eleven popsicle sticks.
Figure 14.6 Still eleven sticks.
Figure 14.7 A square-wave shock.
Figure 14.8 The back catching up with the front.
Figure 14.9 Rarefaction wave.
Figure 14.10 Attenuation of a square-wave shock.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Beads on a string.
Figure 15.2 Wall moving at V_w impacts beads.
Figure 15.3 Time-velocity history of Bead No. 1.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Shock parameters in front of and behind a shock-wave front.
Figure 16.2 Control volume or mass passing through a shock front.

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 U-u Hugoniot data for 6061 aluminum, ρ₀ = 2.703 g/cm² (Ref.2).
Figure 17.2 (a) Quartz, ceramic, ρ₀ = 1.9 g/cm³, average ρ₀ = 1.877 g/cm³. (b) Iron-40.0 wt % cobalt, average ρ₀ = 8.091 g/cm³.
Figure 17.3 A typical P-v Hugoniot.
Figure 17.4 Lower part of the P-V Hugoniot.
Figure 17.5 A shock shown on the P-v Hugoniot.
Figure 17.6 P-u Hugoniot with u_s = 0.
Figure 17.7 P-u Hugoniots with u₀ as a parameter.

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 Impact of two slabs.
Figure 18.2 x-t diagram of impact of two slabs.
Figure 18.3 P-u Hugoniot solution of impact problem.
Figure 18.4 P-u Hugoniot plots by Jones (Ref. 7).
Figure 18.5 (a) P-x diagram, before interaction. (b) P-x diagram, at interaction. (c) P-x diagram, after interaction.
Figure 18.6 x-t diagram for shock across a material interface.
Figure 18.7 Constructing left-going Hugoniot from P₁,u₁. (1) Left-going Hugoniot for A, centered on the u axis at u₀ = 2u_1A and passing through P₁,u_1A; (2) Right-going Hugoniot for A, centered on the u axis at u₀ = 0.
Figure 18.8 Solving for a shock across an interface where Z_B Z_A.
Figure 18.9 (a) P-X diagrams of shock at a material interface where Z_A > Z_B, before interaction. (b) P-X diagrams of shock at a material interface where Z_A > Z_B, at interaction. (c) P-X diagrams of shock at a material interface where Z_A > Z_B, after interaction.
Figure 18.10 Solving for a shock across an interface where Z_A > Z_B.
Figure 18.11 (a) P-X diagrams of two colliding shocks, before interaction. (b) P-X diagrams of two colliding shocks, at interaction. (c) P-X diagrams of two colliding shocks, after interaction.
Figure 18.12 X-T diagram for collision of two head-on shock waves.
Figure 18.13 Right and left Hugoniots reflected around P₁,u₁.
Figure 18.14 P-u plane including negative velocity region.
Figure 18.15 Solution for P₃ in the negative velocity region.

Chapter 19

Figure 19.1 A P-x diagram of a square shock.
Figure 19.2 P-V diagram showing two rarefaction wavelets jumping down the Hugoniots.
Figure 19.3 P-x shapshots (later in time) of the progress of the shock and the two rarefaction wavelets.
Figure 19.4 x-t diagrams, 10 wavelets relieving shock.
Figure 19.5 Ten wavelets relieving a shock along the P-V Hugoniot.
Figure 19.6 The rarefaction fan on an x-t plane. (If the entire rarefaction fan does not play a significant role in the problem at hand, then just plot the leading edge of the rarefaction.)
Figure 19.7 P-x diagrams of a shock at a free surface.
Figure 19.8 x-t diagram of shock at free surface.
Figure 19.9 P-u diagram for shock interaction at free surface.
Figure 19.10 Finite-thickness flyer impacting a thick target, Z_t > Z_f.
Figure 19.11 Interaction at point (1) (refer to Figure 19.10).
Figure 19.12 Interaction at (2) (refer to Figure 19.10).
Figure 19.13 Interaction at (3) (refer to Figure 19.10).
Figure 19.14 Finite-thickness flyer impacting target where Z_f = Z_t.
Figure 19.15 Flyer impact where Z_f > Z_t.
Figure 19.16 Interaction at (1) (refer to Figure 19.15).
Figure 19.17 Interaction at (2) (refer to Figure 19.15).
Figure 19.18 Interaction at (3) (refer to Figure 19.15).
Figure 19.19 P-x diagram just after interaction at point (3) (refer to Figure 19.15).
Figure 19.20 Interaction at second shock in flyer with free surface at (4) (refer to Figure 19.15).
Figure 19.21 Interaction at (5) (refer to Figure 19.15).
Figure 19.22 P-x diagram just after interaction at (5) (refer to Figure 19.15).
Figure 19.23 P-x diagram of two rarefactions on a collision course.
Figure 19.24 x-t diagram of collision of two rarefactions.
Figure 19.25 P-u interaction of two rarefactions.
Figure 19.26 P-x diagram of a sawtooth shock pulse.
Figure 19.27 Coarse wavelet model of sawtooth wave.
Figure 19.28 Interaction of wavelets (sawtooth model) at a free surface.
Figure 19.29 Interaction at (1) (reference Figure 19.28).
Figure 19.30 Interaction at (2) (reference Figure 19.28).
Figure 19.31 (a) and (b) P-x diagrams after (1) and (2) interactions.
Figure 19.32 Interaction at point (3) (reference Figure 19.27).
Figure 19.33 (a) P-x diagram of sawtoothed wave just before interaction with free surface; (b) P-x diagram of sawtoothed wave just after interaction with free surface; (c) P-x diagram of sawtoothed wave just after interaction (2); (d) P-x diagram of sawtoothed wave just after interaction (3); (e) P-x diagram of sawtoothed wave just after interaction (4); (f) P-x diagram of sawtoothed wave (with the step size taken to the limit) after interaction with a free surface.

Chapter 20

Figure 20.1 P-v plane representation of detonation.
Figure 20.2 Various Rayleigh line possibilities.
Figure 20.3 P-x diagram of a detonation wave.
Figure 20.4 The Taylor wave.
Figure 20.5 Correlation of CJ density to initial unreacted explosive density (Refs. 1 and 2).
Figure 20.6 Left-going shock wave P-u Hugoniot of the detonation reaction products of TATB/T2, developed from experimental data (Ref. 3).
Figure 20.8 The reaction product Hugoniot (P-u).
Figure 20.9 P-x diagram, detonation approaching material B.
Figure 20.10 x-t diagram of interaction.
Figure 20.11 Interaction on P-u plane Z_B > Z_det.
Figure 20.12 P-u interaction, Z_B < Z_det.

Chapter 21

Figure 21.1 Idealized P-x diagram of a detonation.
Figure 21.2 Detonation reaction zone length for TNT as a function of loading density (Ref. 5).
Figure 21.3 Detonation velocity versus charge diameter of Comp. B.
Figure 21.4 Detonation velocity versus reciprocal diameter of Comp. B.
Figure 21.5 D/D_i versus reciprocal diameter of Comp. B.
Figure 21.6 Detonation velocity of TNT/AN (60/40), ρ₀ = 1.5 g/cm³, in steel tube versus reciprocal diameter squared times weight ratio of charge to casing (Ref. 7).
Figure 21.7 Rate constant a plotted versus failure diameter (Ref. 8).
Figure 21.8 Failure diameter of nitroglycerine and liquid TNT as a function of temperature (Ref. 5).
Figure 21.9 Failure diameter of TNT as a function of initial density (Ref. 7). 1. Pressed or powder: Grains ize: (1) 0.01–0.05 mm; (b) 0.07–0.2 mm. 2. Cast: (a) Poured clear; (b) creamed; (c) creamed with 10% powder added.
Figure 21.10 Failure diameter versus initial density for AN-fuel (peat) explosives at different grain sizes (Ref. 7).
Figure 21.11 Failure diameter for detonation of AP as a function of initial density. Average grain size, 10 m (Ref. 7).
Figure 21.12 Failure diameter versus initial density for TNT/AN 50/50 (Ref. 7).
Figure 21.13 Minimum failure thickness test assembly (Ref. 6).
Figure 21.14 Detonation velocity versus initial density for HBX (RDX/TNT/A1, 45/30/25) (Ref. 9).
Figure 21.15 Detonation velocity versus initial density for PETN and TNT (Refs. 1, 2, and 5).
Figure 21.16 Variation of wave shape with charge length in ideal detonation (Ref. 9).
Figure 21.17 Variation of end effect with charge length (Refs. 6 and 9).

Chapter 22

Figure 22.1. Typical plot of log of reaction rate versus reciprocal temperature.
Figure 22.2. Critical temperature versus radius for several explosives.
Figure 22.3. λ versus density for TATB.
Figure 22.4. λ versus temperature for three explosives.
Figure 22.5. x-t diagram of shocks and rarefactions in both explosive and flyer after impact.
Figure 22.6. Attenuation of the square impact shock pule with distance and time.
Figure 22.7. Side attenuation of impact shock.
Figure 22.8. Impact pressure to cause detonation in Comp. B versus diameter of impacter.

Chapter 23

Figure 23.1. Commercial nonelectric blasting cap.
Figure 23.2. Typical military flash detonators.
Figure 23.3. Stab detonator.
Figure 23.4. Typical stab initiator firing pin.
Figure 23.5. Energy-velocity relationship for firing M55 stab primer (data from Ref. 10).
Figure 23.6. Typical rim-fired cartridge.
Figure 23.7. Center fire percussion primer.
Figure 23.8. Battery cup percussion primer.
Figure 23.9. Energy-velocity relationship for three percussion primers (data from Refs. 10, 11, and 12).
Figure 23.10. Energy versus power limits.
Figure 23.11. Hyperbolic relationship of P and E.
Figure 23.12. Firing energy versus input power for a typical initiator.
Figure 23.13. Reduced energy versus reduced power for different types of initiators (Refs. 10 and 12).

Chapter 24

Figure 24.1. Generic hot-wire initiator.
Figure 24.2. Fuse head comb, bridged (w/permission from Ref. 14).
Figure 24.3. Loaded fuseheads (w/permission from Ref. 14).
Figure 24.4. Finished fusehead.
Figure 24.5. Benjamin Franklin black powder spark ignitor.
Figure 24.6. Dr. Robert Hare’s hot-wire black powder ignitor (w/permission from Ref. 14).
Figure 24.7. H. Julius Smith high-tension blasting cap.
Figure 24.8. Smith-Gardiner hot-wire cap.
Figure 24.9. Older and current solid pack electric blasting caps.
Figure 24.10. Match (or fusehead) initiated electric blasting cap.
Figure 24.11. M36A1 detonator (note raised bridge).
Figure 24.12. Typical bridges and bridge configurations of flush bridge initiators.
Figure 24.13. A typical connectorized initiator.
Figure 24.14. Mean minimum firing energy as a function of bridgewire volume (Ref. 10).
Figure 24.15. Energy-power relationship for a typical blasting cap (DuPont #E-78).
Figure 24.16. A schematic of a simple firing circuit.

Chapter 25

Figure 25.1. Typical EDB detonator (Reynolds Industries Systems Inc., RP-1).
Figure 25.2. Typical current trace through a low-impedance load.
Figure 25.3. Current trace of bridge explosion.
Figure 25.4. Electrical resistance of exploding bridgewire.
Figure 25.5. Burst action.
Figure 25.6. Burst point changes with changes in source impedance.
Figure 25.7. Current trace on first round trip.
Figure 25.8. Current trace after second round trip.
Figure 25.9. Effect of cable length on burst.
Figure 25.10. Effect of cable type on burst point.
Figure 25.11. Potpourri of firing conditions.
Figure 25.12. Excess transit time of RP-1 detonator versus burst current.

Chapter 26

Figure 26.1. Model and prototype of a cube.
Figure 26.2. Model and prototype of a sphere.
Figure 26.3. Model and prototype of a cannon.
Figure 26.4. A curve.
Figure 26.5. A chart.
Figure 26.6. Experimental results relating drag force to system variables.
Figure 26.7. Detonation and expansion of a typical explosive.

Chapter 27

Figure 27.1. Cylindrical configuration.
Figure 27.2. Spherical configuration.
Figure 27.3. Symmetrical sandwich configuration.
Figure 27.4. Unsymmetrical sandwich configuration.
Figure 27.5. Unsymmetrical sandwich configuration where N → ∞, also called infinitely tamped configuration.
Figure 27.6. Unsymmetrical sandwich configuration where N → 0, also called open-face-sandwich configuration.
Figure 27.7. Comparison of various Gurney model configurations.
Figure 27.8. Cylinder charge driving plate.
Figure 27.9. Effective charge volume.
Figure 27.10. Effective charge mass for short cylindrical charges.
Figure 27.11. Barrel tamped charge.
Figure 27.12. Stress-relief waves leaving a fracture.
Figure 27.13. Mott calculation along with experimental data for a cast iron aerial bomb (data and calculation from Ref. 16).
Figure 27.14. Correlation of Mott coefficient, B (for mild steel cylinders) with CJ pressure.
Figure 27.15. C_D versus Mach number, side-on cylinder and sphere.
Figure 27.16. C_D versus Mach number, face-on, and corner-on cube.
Figure 27.17. C_D versus Mach number, cylinder, end-on.
Figure 27.18. C_D versus Mach number, disc, face-on.
Figure 27.19. Maximum ranges of fragments with initial speed of 10,000 ft/s.

Chapter 28

Figure 28.1. Parameters involved in air-blast scaling.
Figure 28.2. Peak overpressure ratio versus scaled distance (based on data in Ref. 22).
Figure 28.3. Scaled time of arrival versus scaled distance (based on data from Ref. 22).
Figure 28.4. Typical profile of an air-blast wave.
Figure 28.5. Scaled positive pulse duration versus scaled distance (based on data from Ref. 22).
Figure 28.6. Correlation of K and heat of explosion.
Figure 28.7. Peak pressure versus scaled distance for shock from TNT underwater.
Figure 28.8. Square-wave overpressure resulting in 50% survival (P_sw) as functions of average lung density an average lung volume per unit body mass for eight mammalian species.
Figure 28.9. Fatality curves predicted for 70-kg man applicable to free-stream situations where the long axis of the body is parallel to the direction of propagation of the shocked blast wave.
Figure 28.10. Fatality curves predicted for 70-kg man applicable to free-stream situations where the long axis of the body is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the shocked blast wave.
Figure 28.11. Fatality curves predicted for 70-kg man applicable to blast situations where the thorax is near a surface against which a shocked blast wave reflects at normal incidence.
Figure 28.12. Response of ears to a single pressure pulse.
Figure 28.13. Complex pressure signal generated by firing a single explosive charge in a closed room.

Chapter 29

Figure 29.1. A typical explosion crater.
Figure 29.2. Sequential stages of crater formation for buried bursts. (a) Detonation of device, shock wave vaporizes and melts surrounding medium. (b) Shock wave reaches surface, causing spalling; simultaneous spherical cavity growth. (c) Rarefaction from surface reaches cavity and asymmetrical growth towards surface begins. (d) Mound grows and begins to dissociate; vapor filters through broken material. (e) Maximum development of mound; some material slumps from cavity walls; major venting. (f) Complete dissociation of mound; ejection and fallback of material to form apparent crater. (g) Final crater configuration.
Figure 29.3. Primary types of craters resulting from a variety of burst positions.
Figure 29.4. Crater radius versus charge weight for a broad range of explosives types and weights.
Figure 29.5. Descriptive geologic effect on HE cratering efficiency.
Figure 29.6. (1) Comp. C-4; (2) PETN (PC); (3) TNT (cast); (4) ANFO (bagged) (*) nuclear equivalent (data scaled to NTS alluvium).
Figure 29.7. Percent energy coupled to ground as a function of height of burst (Ref. 30).
Figure 29.8. Experimental data from buried charges plotted as cube-root scaling.
Figure 29.9. Experimental data from buried charges plotted at 1/3.4 scaling.

Chapter 30

Figure 30.1. Conical shaped charge.
Figure 30.2. Acceleration of liner during passage of explosive detonation wave.
Figure 30.3. Converging of liner at axis of explosive charge (from Ref. 38).
Figure 30.4. Jet configuration.
Figure 30.5. Erosion of jet through target.
Figure 30.6. Standoff from the target.
Figure 30.7. Example of longer than optimal standoff.
Figure 30.8. Effect of standoff on penetration.
Figure 30.9. Jet penetration of a target.
Figure 30.10. Penetration in steel versus charge weight for a number of different shaped charges.
Figure 30.11. Shaped charge cone during collapse.
Figure 30.12. Jet formation near collision point.
Figure 30.13. Plate welding setups
Figure 30.14. Flyer plate collision at β forms jet.
Figure 30.15. Collision and flow.
Figure 30.16. Copper welded to mild steel (Ref. 39).
Figure 30.17. (a) Photomicrograph (100X) of stainless steel (Type 304L) explosion welded to carbon steel (SA-516-70). (b) Photomicrographs of the interface of explosively welded metals. Mild steel welded to mild steel (Ref. 39).
Figure 30.18. (a) 4130 Steel explosion welded at 4130 steel. (b) Explosion weld of 1018 steel to 1018 steel. (c) Explosion weld interface of sample made of alternate layers of Cu and Ni electroplate. Each square 0.0005 in. × 0.0005 in. (d) Explosion weld of Ni to Co (Ref. 40).
Figure 30.19. Formation of waves according to Bahrami et al. (Ref. 41).
Figure 30.20. The relationship between the calculated values of β and the collision point velocity for initially parallel plate (Ref. 42).

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1: Alkanes

Chapter 2

Table 2.1: Atomic Weights for Elements in CHNO Explosives

Chapter 3

Table 3.1: Molecular Substituent Groups Common to Many Explosives
Table 3.2: Physical Properties of Some Aromatic Explosives
Table 3.3: Physical Properties of Some Aliphatic Explosives
Table 3.4: Physical Properties of Some Inorganic Explosives

Chapter 4

Table 4.1: Pellet Density Versus Loading Pressure^a
Table 4.2: TNT-Based Castable Explosives
Table 4.3: Plastic Bonded Explosives
Table 4.4: Binders Used in Plastic Bonded Explosives
Table 4.5: Thickness and Weight of DuPont Detasheets
Table 4.6: Commercial Binary Explosives
Table 4.7: Commercial, Prepackaged, Blasting Agents
Table 4.8: Some Commercial Slurry or Aqueous Gel Explosives
Table 4.9: U.S. Commercial Dynamites

Chapter 5

Table 5.1: Characteristic Velocities D_i

Chapter 6

Table 6.1: Decomposition-Rate Equation Constants
Table 6.2: Vacuum Stability Test Data
Table 6.3: Temperature for Explosion (°C)

Chapter 8

Table 8.1: Molal heat capacities of gases at constant pressure (P=0); units: (g cal) / (g mole)(K)
Table 8.2: Empirical constants for molal heat capacities of gases at constant pressure (p = 0) C_p = a +bT +cT², where T is in degrees Kelvin; (g cal) / (g mole) (K); temperature range 300 to 1500 K
Table 8.3: Heat capacities of inorganic liquids C_p is the heat capacity, (g cal) / (g)(°C) at T(°C); a, the temperature coefficient in the equation C_p C_p₀ + aT over the indicated temperature range
Table 8.4: Heat Capacities of Organic Liquids; data from International Critical Tables unless otherwise indicated; C_p is the heat capacity, calories per gram per °C at t °C C; a the temperature coefficient in C_p C_p₀ +at, applying over the indicated temperature range
Table 8.5: Heat Capacity of Elements at 20°C for Kopp’s Rule for Liquids
Table 8.6: Heat Capacities of Solid Inorganic Compounds; C_p = cal gram (°C)
Table 8.7: Heat Capacities of Miscellaneous Materials C_p = cal/(gram)(°C)
Table 8.8: Heat Capacity of Elements For Use In Kopp’s Rule For Solids At 20°C
Table 8.9: Heats of Fusion; λ_f, heat of fusion, g cal per g atom or g mole; t_f, melting point, °C (T_f, melting point, K) (to convert heats of fusion to Btu per pound mole, multiply table values by 1.8)
Table 8.10: Heats of Vaporization; λ the heat of vaporization at t_b (°C), g cal per g mole; t, temperature, °C; t_b, normal boiling point, °C (to convert heats of vaporization to Btu per pound mole, multiply table values by 1.8)
Table 8.11: Heats of Transition; λ_f the heat absorbed in transition, g cal per g atom; to convert to Btu per pound mole, multiply by 1.8; t_f, the temperature of transformation, °C

Chapter 9

Table 9.1: Heats of Formation of Inorganic Compounds; Reference conditions: 25°C (298.16 K), 1 atm pressure, gaseous substances in ideal state. = standard heat of formation, kcal per g mole; Multiply values by 1800 to obtain Btu per pound mole.
Table 9.2: Heats of Formation for Some Pure Explosive Compounds, is given in kcal/g mole, reference state is 25°C, 1 atm
Table 9.3: Standard Heats of Combustion; reference conditions: 25°C (298.16 K), 1 atm pressure, gaseous substances in ideal state; is given in kcal/g mole, reference state is 25°C, 1 atm
Table 9.4: Comparison of estimates of heats of detonation of pure explosive compounds with experimentally measured values; is in (kcal)/(g mole)

Chapter 10

Table 10.1: Benson Group Contributions to Ideal-Gas Properties for Hydrocarbon Groups (copied w/permission from—see reference 8)
Table 10.2: Benson Group Contributions to Ideal-Gas Properties for Oxygen-Containing Compounds (copied w/ permission—see ref 8)
Table 10.3: Benson Group Contributions to Ideal-Gas Properties for Nitrogen Containing Compounds (copied w/ permission—see Ref 8)
Table 10.4: Benson Group Contributions to Ideal-Gas Properties for Halogen Groups (copied w/ permission—see Ref 8)
Table 10.5: Benson Group Contributions to Ideal-Gas Properties for Organo-sulfur Groups (copied w/permission—see Ref 8)
Table 10.6: Group Additivity Values Per Shaw

Chapter 11

Table 11.1: Values of γ for Various Gases at 1 atm pressure

Chapter 17

Table 17.1: U-u Hugoniot Values for Inert Materials
Table 17.2: U-u Hugoniot Values for Unreacted Explosives
Table 17.3: Longitudinal Sound Speed for Some Inert Materials
Table 17.4: Longitudinal Sound Speed for Some Unreacted Explosives
Table 17.5: Shock Heating Effects

Chapter 19

Table 19.1: Spall Strength Estimates for Several Materials

Chapter 20

Table 20.1: Experimental Data of Detonation Parameters at the CJ State

Chapter 21

Table 21.1: Reaction-Zone Length
Table 21.2: Composition B Detonation Velocity Versus Rate-Stick Diameter
Table 21.3: Effect of Diameter on Detonation Velocity of Cylindrical Charges Fired in Air
Table 21.4: Parameters of the Diameter-Effect Curve
Table 21.5: Critical Diameter (D_c)
Table 21.6: Detonation Failure Thickness
Table 21.7: Effect of Initial Density on Detonation Velocity
Table 21.8: Effect of Temperature on Detonation Velocity

Chapter 22

Table 22.1: Critical Explosion Temperatures
Table 22.2: Thermal Conductivities (λ) of Explosives and Binders
Table 22.3: Critical Energies for Shock Initiation
Table 22.4: Least-Squares Fits for Shock Initiation Data

Chapter 23

Table 23.1: Effect of Loading Pressure on Stab Initiator Sensitivity^a
Table 23.2: Common Priming Compositions
Table 23.3: Common Centerfire Percussion Primers

Chapter 24

Table 24.1: Typical Values of E and R_b for the Major Classes of Hot-wire Initiators

Chapter 25

Table 25.1: i_bth For Some Commercial EBW Detonators
Table 25.2: Impedances of Common EBW Detonator Cables
Table 25.3: Function Characteristics of Several Commercial EBWs

Chapter 26

Table 26.1: Systems of Defined Units
Table 26.2: Dimensions of Entities

Chapter 27

Table 27.1: Correlation of to Detonation Velocity
Table 27.2: Values of Mott coefficient, B, for Mild Steel Cylinders

Chapter 28

Table 28.1: Comparison of TNT Equivalent Estimates with Test Data
Table 28.2: K and α Values for Several Explosives
Table 28.3: Values of Factors B and F for scaling impulse from underwater explosions

Chapter 29

Table 29.1: HE Cratering Efficiencies for Various Earth Materials at a Zero Height of Burst

The procedures in this text are intended for use only by persons with prior training in the field of explosives. In the checking and editing of these procedures, every effort has been made to identify potentially hazardous steps and safety precautions have been inserted where appropriate. However, these procedures must be conducted at one’s own risk. The authors and the publisher, its subsidiaries and distributors, assume no liability and make no guarantees or warranties, express or implied, for the accuracy of the contents of this book or the use of information, methods or products described in this book. In no event shall the authors, the publisher, its subsidiaries or distributors, be liable for any damages or expenses, including consequential damages and expenses, resulting from the use of the information, methods or products described in this book.

Paul W. Cooper
424 Girard Blvd., SE
Albuquerque, NM 87106

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cooper, Paul W., 1937–

       Explosives engineering / Paul W. Cooper.
            p. cm.
       Includes bibliographical references (p. –) and index.
       ISBN 0-471-18636-8 (alk. paper)
       1. Explosives. I. Title.
  TP270.C7438 1997
  662′.2—dc20

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008.

Preface

The field of explosives engineering incorporates a broad variety of sciences and engineering technologies that are brought together to bear on each particular design problem. These technologies include chemistry, thermodynamics, fluid dynamics, aerodynamics, mechanics, electricity, and electronics, and even meteorology, biology, and physiology. Although excellent textbooks and research papers are found in each of these areas, there has been little, if any, literature available that ties all these diverse technologies together into a unified engineering discipline for this complex field of explosives engineering.

The purpose of this text is to attempt to fill that gap. It is based, in large part, upon engineering philosophies and approaches I have developed during my career to solve numerous design problems. The text is broken into six general areas, each of which is bound together by a common technical thread.

Section I deals with the chemistry of explosives. It starts with definitions and nomenclature of organic chemicals, based on molecular structure, which is included to bring nonchemists up to speed on being able recognize and describe pure explosive compounds and mixtures and not to be intimidated by chemists’ jargon. It then describes the many forms in which these explosive chemicals are used. Using molecular structure as the common thread, the text then goes into the estimation of the stoichiometry of oxidation reactions, the prediction of explosive detonation velocity and pressure properties, and the quantitative analysis of thermal stability.

Section II deals with the energetics of explosive reactions: Where does the energy come from, and how much do we get out of a particular explosive reaction? This section also uses molecular structure as the common thread tying together the thermophysical and thermochemical behavior of these reactions. In this section the thermochemical properties of the materials are used to predict the explosive properties.

Section III deals with nonreactive shock waves. The thread here is composed of three simple equations that describe the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy across the shock front. In this section we learn how to deal quantitatively with shock waves interacting with material interfaces and other shock waves.

Section IV combines the thermochemistry from Section II with the shock behavior of Section III to describe detonation (reactive shock waves). This section begins with simple ideal detonation theory and then goes on to quantitative calculations of detonation interactions at interfaces with other materials, and then deals with nonideal effects, those that cannot be predicted by ideal theory, such as the effects of size and geometry.

Section V describes the initiation of explosive reactions and the application of initiation theory to the design and analysis of initiating devices such as nonelectric, hot-wire, and exploding-bridgewire igniters and detonators. The thread that sews together all initiation phenomena is an energy-power balance, which describes the rate at which energy is deposited in an explosive and the rate of energy lost from the explosive through heat transfer.

Section VI takes all the previous information and, hanging that on a common thread of dimensional analysis, goes into the development of design scaling and scaling databases. Scaling theory and data are used here to predict the formation and flight of fragments generated by explosive devices; the production and behavior of air- and water-blast waves; the formation of craters from above-ground, ground-level, and buried explosive charges; the formation of material jetting and how that is applied to the design and behavior of lined cavity-shaped charges, as well as to the process of explosive welding.

Missing from this text is any mention of the computer codes and programs that may be used for the solution of many explosive design problems. That is an intentional omission. This text is intended to give the reader the basic understanding and working tool kit to deal with various explosive phenomena. When computer codes are used, this basic understanding of the phenomena provides a reality check of the output of computer-derived solutions.

Acknowledgments

I wish to acknowledge and thank the following people who helped with bringing this book to completion: Glenda Ponder for the editing and typing and formatting of the original manuscript; Dr. Olden L. Burchett (Sandia National Laboratories, retired), Dr. Brigita M. Dobratz (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, retired), and Stanley R. Kurowski (Sandia National Laboratories, retired), who devoted so much time and work in the editing and checking of the final manuscript.

My sincere thanks and appreciation also to the following people who reviewed the manuscripts and provided many excellent comments and improvements: John L. Montoya (Sandia National Laboratories), Dr. Gerald Laib (Naval Surface Warfare Center White Oak), Dr. James E. Kennedy (Los Alamos National Laboratory), Dr. Carl-Otto Lieber (Bundesinstitut fur Chemisch-Technische, BICT, Germany), Dr. Hugh R. James (Atomic Weapons Establishment, England), Dr. Pascal A. Bauer (Professor, Ecole Nationale Superieure de Mecanique et d’Aerotechnique, Paris, France), Dr. Eric J. Rinehart (Field Command, U.S. Defense Nuclear Agency). Mr. J. Christopher Ronay (Institute of Makers of Explosives), and Dr. Ronald Varosh (Reynolds Industries Systems, Inc.).

Paul W. Cooper
Albuquerque, NM

Explosives Engineering

Preface

Acknowledgments

SECTION I
CHEMISTRY OF EXPLOSIVES