Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Dedication

Chapter 1: Introduction to Energy Efficient Manufacturing

1.1 Energy Use Implications
1.2 Drivers and Solutions for Energy Efficiency
References

Chapter 2: Operation Planning & Monitoring

2.1 Unit Manufacturing Processes
2.2 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) of Unit Manufacturing Process
2.3 Energy Consumption in Unit Manufacturing Process
2.4 Operation Plan Relevance to Energy Consumption
2.5 Energy Accounting in Unit Manufacturing Processes
2.6 Processing Energy in Unit Manufacturing Process
2.7 Energy Reduction Opportunities
References

Chapter 3: Materials Processing

3.1 Steel
3.2 Aluminum
3.3 Titanium
3.4 Polymers
References

Chapter 4: Energy Reduction in Manufacturing via Incremental Forming and Surface Microtexturing

4.1 Incremental Forming
4.2 Surface Microtexturing
4.3 Summary
4.4 Acknowledgement
References

Chapter 5: An Analysis of Energy Consumption and Energy Efficiency in Material Removal Processes

5.1 Overview
5.2 Plant and Workstation Levels
5.3 Operation Level
5.4 Process Optimization for Energy Consumption
5.5 Conclusions
Reference

Chapter 6: Nontraditional Removal Processes

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Energy Efficiency
Acknowledgments
References

Chapter 7: Surface Treatment and Tribological Considerations

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Surface Treatment Techniques
7.3 Coating Operations
7.4 Tribology
7.5 Evolving Technologies
7.6 Micro Manufacturing
7.7 Conclusions
References

Chapter 8: Joining Processes

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Sustainability in Joining
8.3 Taxonomy
8.4 Data Sources
8.5 Efficiency of Joining Equipment
8.6 Efficiency of Joining Processes
8.7 Process Selection
8.8 Efficiency of Joining Facilities
8.9 Case Studies
Reference

Chapter 9: Manufacturing Equipment

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Power Measurement
9.3 Characterizing the Power Demand
9.4 Energy Model
9.5 Life Cycle Energy Analysis of Production Equipment
9.6 Energy Reduction Strategies
9.7 Additional Life Cycle Impacts of Energy Reduction Strategies
9.8 Summary
References

Chapter 10: Energy Considerations in Assembly Operations

10.1 Introduction to Assembly Systems & Operations
10.2 Fundamentals of Assembly Operations
10.3 Characterizing Assembly System Energy Consumption
10.4 Direct Energy Considerations of Assembly Joining Processes
10.5 Assembly System Energy Metrics
10.6 Case Study: Heavy Duty Truck Assembly
10.7 Future of Energy Efficient Assembly Operations
References

Appendix 10.A

Chapter 11: Manufacturing Facility Energy Improvement

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Auxiliary Industrial Energy Consumptions
11.3 Industrial Practices on Energy Assessment and Energy Efficiency Improvement
11.4 Energy Management and Its Enhancement Approaches
11.5 Conclusions
References

Chapter 12: Energy Efficient Manufacturing Process Planning

12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Basics of Process Planning
12.3 Energy Efficient Process Planning
12.4 Case Study
12.5 Conclusions
Reference

Chapter 13: Scheduling for Energy Efficient Manufacturing

13.1 Introduction
13.2 A Brief Introduction to Scheduling
13.3 Objective Functions for Energy Efficiency
13.4 An Integer Linear Program for Scheduling an Energy-Efficient Flow Shop
13.5 Conclusion and Additional Reading
References

Chapter 14: Energy Efficiency in the Supply Chain

14.1 Supply Chain Management
14.2 Supply Chain Structure
14.3 Supply Chain Processes
14.4 Supply Chain Management Components
14.5 Conclusion
References
Endnotes

Chapter 15: Business Models and Organizational Strategies

15.1 Introduction
15.2 Reference Framework for Selection of Energy Efficiency Projects
15.3 Common Energy Efficiency Opportunities
15.4 Stakeholders
15.5 Conclusions
References

Chapter 16: Energy Efficient or Energy Effective Manufacturing?

16.1 Energy Efficiency: A Macro Perspective
16.2 The Basics of Energy Efficiency
16.3 Limitations of Energy Efficiency
16.4 Energy Effectiveness
16.5 Summary
16.6 Acknowledgments
References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Energy consumption in the USA by sector [5].
Figure 1.2 Average retail prices of electricity [5].
Figure 1.3 Structure of the book.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Process chain of unit processes to manufacture bearing race.
Figure 2.2 Energy and material inputs and outputs for unit manufacturing process.
Figure 2.3 Taxonomy of manufacturing processes.
Figure 2.4 Overview of the CO₂PE! UPLCI—framework [9].
Figure 2.5 Overview of the process inventory phase for the in-depth approach [9].
Figure 2.6 Energy supplies to manufacturing [16].
Figure 2.7 LCI system boundary of a machining process.
Figure 2.8 Processing energy model in forging of solid cylindrical workpiece.
Figure 2.9 Processing energy model for orthogonal cutting.
Figure 2.10 Power characteristics of machine tools [17].
Figure 2.11 Processing energy model for grinding.
Figure 2.12 Specific energy as a function of MRR [22].
Figure 2.13 Experimental setup of power measurement [27].
Figure 2.14 Process chain shortened by hard milling.
Figure 2.15 Increase of energy efficiency by using new technologies [28].
Figure 2.16 Hybrid milling-laser process.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 World crude steel production, 1970 to 2010 [2].
Figure 3.2 Total energy consumption of crude steel production for North America, Europe, and Japan, 1975 to 2005 [5].
Figure 3.3 Secondary aluminum production in the United States, 1940–2010 [18].
Figure 3.4 Global and United States production of aluminum, 1930–2012 [18].
Figure 3.5 Market share and price of aluminum for the United States, 1940-2010 [18].
Figure 3.6 End uses of aluminum, 1975-2003 [20].
Figure 3.7 Global market share of titanium alloys [27].
Figure 3.8 Titanium sponge consumption compared to mineral importation, 1928–2011 [28, 32, 33].
Figure 3.9 End uses of titanium sponge metal, 1975-2004 [34].
Figure 3.10 Titanium sponge price and consumption, along with several major global events, 1941-2011 [19, 35].
Figure 3.11 Global production of plastics, 1950–2012 [39].
Figure 3.12 Polymer products manufactured in the United States, 2012 [40].
Figure 3.13 Fabrication processes used in manufacturing polymer products [41].
Figure 3.14 Comparison of common polymer manufacturing processes [42].
Figure 3.15 Examples of shape complexity obtained with hybrid polymer-powder processes.
Figure 3.16 Market distribution of power semiconductor devices.
Figure 3.17 Overall environmental impact of electricity and total materials and energy [47].

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Schematic of (a) Single point incremental forming (b) Double sided incremental forming.
Figure 4.2 Classification of current flexible and sustainable forming processes.
Figure 4.3 Schematic of (a) Conventional stamping (b) MPD forming system
Figure 4.4 Schematic of (a) Flexible rolling setup (b) 3D view of flexible rolling process. [13].
Figure 4.5 Schematic of shot peen forming process (http://abrasivefinishingcompany.com/t-peen-forming.html)
Figure 4.6 Schematic of (a) Marform process [11] and the (b) Hydroforming process (http://www.thefabricator.com).
Figure 4.7 (a) Schematic of Explosive forming process.[15] (b) Schematic of Electromagnetic-die forming process.[15].
Figure 4.8 (a) Tools used in Incremental Forming (b) Experimental Forming Limit Curve for SPIF and conventional forming [19] (c) Conventional forming press, weight 8000 lbs (d) Incremental Forming machine, weight 2000 lbs.
Figure 4.9 Comparison of exergy consumption between Incremental Forming, hydroforming and conventional forming processes [9].
Figure 4.10 Schematic showing the technical challenges in incremental forming.
Figure 4.11 Schematic showing geometrical inaccuracy in SPIF.
Figure 4.12 Schematic showing toolpath in (a) DSIF out-to-in toolpath (b) ADSIF toolpath.
Figure 4.13 Schematic showing relative positioning of the top and the bottom tools.
Figure 4.14 (a) Comparison of parts formed with SPIF and DSIF out-to-in toolpaths (b) Comparison of geometric profiles of parts formed with SPIF and DSIF out-to-in toolpaths.
Figure 4.15 Schematic showing relative positioning of forming tool (top tool) and supporting tool (bottom tool) in ADSIF.
Figure 4.16 (a) Comparison of profiles of a 40° wall angle cone formed with SPIF, DSIF out-to-in and ADSIF toolpaths (b) Comparison of parts formed with SPIF, DSIF out-to-in and ADSIF toolpaths.
Figure 4.17 (a) 50° wall angle cone that fractures with SPIF and DSIF out-to-in toolpaths but not with the ADSIF toolpaths (b) Complex parts formed with ADSIF.
Figure 4.18 Custom built Incremental Forming Machine at Northwestern University.
Figure 4.19 Comparison of tool z forces between FEA and experiments for (a) 70° cone shape (b) funnel shape.
Figure 4.20 Contours of localization flag, z depth and plastic strain at (a) at onset of diffused necking (b) at onset of localized necking (c) just before fracture, for punch forming of the 70° cone.
Figure 4.21 Contours of localization flag, z depth and plastic strain at (a) at onset of diffused necking (b) at onset of localized necking (c) just before fracture, for SPIF of the 70° cone.
Figure 4.22 (a) Stretching the string at the free end (b) material localization at a single location on the string (c) Fracture at location of material localization (d) Stretching the string by ∆s at location ∆c from the free end (e) Continuous material localization along length of the string (f) elongation to a greater length without fracture.
Figure 4.23 Regions along the outer surface of SPIF components indicating material localization.
Figure 4.24 (a) Laser textured sample surface; the cylinder diameter is 18.75 mm. Laser texture features with a width of 100 microns, length of 400 microns, and depth of 25 microns (b) Three dimensional view of a portion of a bar-shaped dimple. Neglecting discontinuities, maximum depth is approximately 25 microns.
Figure 4.25 Schematic of the experimental setup. The strip is pulled at a constant velocity and pulling force is recorded.
Figure 4.26 Percentage reduction in coefficient of friction from a non-textured to a textured surface.
Figure 4.27 Laser micro-machining system, including a picosecond laser, a beam delivery system, and a 5 degree of freedom position stage.
Figure 4.28 Rastering trajectory for the creation of a rectangular surface texture feature. The green lines show the trajectory of the firing laser beam and the grey dashed lines show the trajectory followed while not firing.
Figure 4.29 Illustration of pulse overlap. Grey circles represent the placement of laser pulses and black dashed lines follow the path of the laser beam. (a) and (b) represent 50% and 75% overlap in X, respectively, and (c) represents 50% overlap in X and 50% overlap in Y.
Figure 4.30 (a) Schematic of LIP-MP (b) Plasma in LIP-MP using distilled water and a ps.
Figure 4.31 (a) CCD image of spot plasma (b) Optical arrangement for creating line plasma (c) CCD image of line plasma.
Figure 4.32 Channels machined on: (a) Polycarbonate (b) ABS (Power: 0.12 W, Frequency: 10 kHz, Dielectric: Distilled water, laser feed: 10 μm/s).
Figure 4.33 Channels machined on: a) Transparent alumina ceramic (b) Shiny silicon wafer (Power: 0.12 W, Frequency: 10 kHz, Dielectric: Distilled water, laser feed: 10 μm/s).
Figure 4.34 Channels machined on Polycarbonate with S-LIPMM and direct laser ablation (Power: 0.12 W, Frequency: 10 kHz, Dielectric: Distilled water, spot translated at 10 μm/s).
Figure 4.35 Channels machined on AA5052 with Line LIPMM (a) Optical view and depth plot of machined channels (b) cross sectional geometry of machined channels.
Figure 4.36 (a) Channel arrays on silicon machined using L-LIPMM (b) Alternating channel patterns on silicon using L-LIPMM.
Figure 4.37 (a) Schematic of rollers with microchannel features (b) CAD model and fabricated DμRM (c) Schematic of DμRM.
Figure 4.38 Schematic of Flexible Bearing House (FBH).
Figure 4.39 (a) Schematic of capacitive pressure sensor (b) Fabricated pressure sensor.
Figure 4.40 (a) Microroller used for texturing in [73] (b) Measurement of roll pressure as a function of set gap between rolls (c) Measurement of channel depth as a function of location along the roller axis.
Figure 4.41 (a) Multipass forming strategy for forming non-regular channels (b) Channels and textures formed using the DμRM setup and multipass forming strategy.
Figure 4.42 Deformed channel geometry (a) after one roll pass (b) after two roll passes (c) as a function of roll pass and set roll gap.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Power requirement in the form of electricity used per unit mass of material processed for various manufacturing processes as a function of the rate of material processing [2].
Figure 5.2 Energy flow breakdown for a machining line [4].
Figure 5.3 Energy profile of a turning process [7].
Figure 5.4 Energy consumption per unit volume of material removed [10].
Figure 5.5 Energy contribution of the process at different cutting speed [10].
Figure 5.6 Energy efficiency of the process at different cutting speed [10].
Figure 5.7 Procedures of the energy saving approach [11].
Figure 5.8 Example of energy monitoring analysis across temporal scales [12].
Figure 5.9 Standby power of studied machine tools [13].
Figure 5.10 Component power of NH8000 milling machine [13].
Figure 5.11 EnergyBlocks methodology [20].
Figure 5.12 Time, energy consumption and energy cost results for the case study of cylinder head manufacturing [20].
Figure 5.13 Variation of cutting power with material removal rate for various materials [23].
Figure 5.14 Variation of energy efficiency with (a) cutting speed, (b) rake angle, (c) nose radius and (d) edge radius [26].
Figure 5.15 (a) Specific energy demand and its contributions, (b) as a function of lubrication/cooling conditions [27].
Figure 5.16 Population plot for optimization of dry machining process.
Figure 5.17 Population plot for optimization of MQL machining process.
Figure 5.18 Population plot for optimization of cryogenic machining process.
Figure 5.19 Total specific energy for 11SMnPB30 steel [25].
Figure 5.20 Composition of total specific energy for HSMnPb30 steel [25].
Figure 5.21 Comparison of measured and predicted forces under dry and cryogenic conditions (V = 100 m/min, f = 0.1 mm/rev) [30].
Figure 5.22 Specific energy of ANSI 1018 steel on the Mori Seiki NVD 1500 milling machine [16].
Figure 5.23 Measured and predicted electrical power consumption due to axis movement [31].
Figure 5.24 Cutting parameters in face milling [32].
Figure 5.25 (a) power measurement according to tool-wear progressed; (b) Power consumption measured [33].
Figure 5.26 Energy consumption and tool life in drilling cast iron with external flushing as a function of removal rate [34].
Figure 5.27 Comparison of energy consumption, tool cost and total cost in drilling for various flushing strategies as a function of material removal rate [34].
Figure 5.28 (a) Conventional acceleration method; (b) improved acceleration method [35].
Figure 5.29 Relationship between specific energy and maximum undeformed chip thickness [37].
Figure 5.30 Specific energy components for (a) conductive ceramic and (b) mild steel [38].
Figure 5.31 Environmental impact (CO2 Fossil) against material removal rate and surface roughness [39].
Figure 5.32 Specific grinding energy during grinding of EN24 steel using flood cooling and soybean-based lubricants [40].
Figure 5.33 Specific grinding energy during grinding of cast iron using flood cooling and paraffin-based lubricants [40].

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Schematic of Electro-Discharge Machining Process (right picture: Kunieda, M., Kruth, J. P., Rajurkar, K. P., Schumacher, M., Advancing EDM through Fundamental Insight into the Process. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, 2005. 54(2): p. 64–87).
Figure 6.2 Sequence of events in EDM process.
Figure 6.3 Illustration of the EDM process mechanism.
Figure 6.4 Schematic of electrochemical machining process.
Figure 6.5 Schematic of electrochemical discharge machining process.
Figure 6.6 Schematic of electrochemical grinding process.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Increasing product complexity since the industrial revolution.
Figure 7.2 Specific energy requirements for various manufacturing processes including ancillary equipment. Source: After Gutowski et al., [2011], with additional processes included.
Figure 7.3 Development of the role of surface geometry Jiang et al., [4].
Figure 7.4 Surface classification hierarchy proposed Jiang et al., [4].
Figure 7.5 Outline of major surface treatment processes.
Figure 7.6 Application of laser texturing to a surface. (a) Crater with rims, as is used to reduce adhesion in computer hard drives; (b) Crater with rim removed, as is used to provide enhanced lubricant transport.
Figure 7.7 Schematic illustration of shot peening. (a) Illustration of a surface subjected to multiple impacts by spherical shot, with a detailed view emphasizing the thickness affected; (b) typical beneficial effects of shot peening on fatigue properties of metals. Source: (b) courtesy of J. Champaigne, Electronics Inc.
Figure 7.8 Typical induction hardening arrangements. Source: Courtesy of Kalpakjian and Schmid [2014].
Figure 7.9 Outline of the major coating processes.
Figure 7.10 Schematic illustrations of thermal-spray operations: (a) thermal wire spray, (b) thermal metal-powder spray, and (c) plasma spray. Source: From Kalpakjian and Schmid [2014].
Figure 7.11 Schematic illustration of the chemical-vapor-deposition process. Note that parts and tools to be coated are placed on trays inside the chamber. Source: From Kalpakjian and Schmid [2014].
Figure 7.12 Schematic illustration of the arc deposition process. Note that there are three arc evaporators and the parts to be coated are placed on a tray inside the chamber. Source: From Kalpakjian and Schmid [2014].
Figure 7.13 Schematic illustration of the sputtering process. Source: From Kalpakjian and Schmid [2014].
Figure 7.14 SEM images of phosphate coatings, from Bay [7]. (a) Needle structure; (b) grainy structure.
Figure 7.15 Schematic illustration of phosphate coating with soap coatings.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 (a) Distribution of energy consumption in U. S. manufacturing industry by energy carrier, (b) Distribution of energy consumption in U.S. semi-final and final metal production by energy carrier [5].
Figure 8.2 Qualitative energy flow for a joining process (adapted from [9]).
Figure 8.3 Classification of joining processes used in this chapter.
Figure 8.4 Photographs of devices for measuring electricity: (a) Fluke I5S 5A AC current probes, and (b) Fluke 1735 Three-Phase power logger (photographed at Technische Universität Chemnitz).
Figure 8.5 Representative schematic of power levels associated with energy consumption for a joining process.
Figure 8.6 Edge preparation for corner joint configurations [22].
Figure 8.7 Welding edge preparations for wide root openings. (a), (b), and (c) Backing bars. (d) Spacer bar [21].
Figure 8.8 Flow diagram for fusion arc welding process.
Figure 8.9 Flow diagram for oxy-acetylene gas welding process.
Figure 8.10 Flow diagram for torch brazing.
Figure 8.11 Flow diagram for mechanical fastening by nut-bolts.
Figure 8.12 Flow diagram for the adhesive bonding process.
Figure 8.13 Peripheral structure of a welding shop (adapted from [25]).
Figure 8.14 General model for energy efficiency measures in factories [31].
Figure 8.15 SAW - equipment diagram [38].
Figure 8.16 Schematic of Friction Stir Welding (UW-Madison).
Figure 8.17 Photograph of FSW tool superimposed on image of weld cross-section (images by UW-Madison).
Figure 8.18 Power characteristics for a representative friction stir weld.
Figure 8.19 Schematic of energy consumed in FSW

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 A schematic of a three-phase, three-load, three-wire measurement.
Figure 9.2 Schematic representation of the components of AC power. Real power, P, is placed on the real axis since it transfers energy, while reactive power, Q, is placed on the imaginary axis since it does not transfer energy.
Figure 9.3 Power breakdown of a machine tool versus processing load (after Dahmus and Gutowski [4] and Diaz et al. [5]).
Figure 9.4 Power breakdown of a Mori Seiki NV4000 and NVD1500 with a spindle rotation of 3,500 rpm and feed rate of 300 mm/min (after Taniguchi et al. [6]).
Figure 9.5 Spindle power versus spindle speed of an array of small to large machine tools [7].
Figure 9.6 Specific energy model of a machine tool.
Figure 9.7 Energy consumed for part manufacture during the use phase of milling machine tools in a commercial facility (after Diaz et al. [14]).
Figure 9.8 Measured (a) final surface roughness and (b) full width at half maximum for varied feed rate, f, cutting speed, v_c, and depth of cut, d, during either the rough or finish cuts as indicated; the baseline case is marked with an “x” [33].
Figure 9.9 Two energy reduction considerations for the product life cycle: (a) leverage increased manufacturing resources to improve part quality, and (b) reduce energy consumption of production equipment.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Assembly in the context of the manufacturing enterprise [By permission of Oxford University Press, USA, MECHANICAL ASSEMBLIES: THEIR DESIGN, MANUFACTURE, AND ROLE IN PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT [5] Table 1.1 (adapted)].
Figure 10.2 Assembly system energy characterization tree.
Figure 10.3 Power density during welding processes (not to scale).
Figure 10.4 Total consumption by energy type.
Figure 10.5 Direct non-value added process by equipment.
Figure 10.6 Direct non-value added process by source.
Figure 10.7 Direct value added process by source.
Figure 10.8 Top direct energy intensive processes.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 U.S. energy consumption by economic sectors.
Figure 11.2 U.S. electricity mix. IEA, Annual Energy Review Report, 2006.
Figure 11.3 Manufacturing Energy Consumption by End-Use in California.
Figure 11.4 Percentage of total energy consumption in commercial building by end use [1].
Figure 11.5 Basic schematic of heating and cooling equipment and air handlers in an HVAC system [8].
Figure 11.6 Cost of energy delivery modes [10].
Figure 11.7 Levelized cost of energy efficiency compared to electric supply side options. Energy efficiency average program portfolio data from Molina 2013 (Courtesy of ACEEE) - forthcoming; All other data from Lazard 2012. High-end range of advanced pulverized coal includes 90% carbon capture and compression
Figure 11.8 Regression analysis of energy use and production data.
Figure 11.9 Energy Use in the Industrial Sector. Based on data from the U.S. Energy Information Agency, January 2012.
Figure 11.10 Source: U.S. EIA, Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey, 2006.
Figure 11.11 Planning Cycle for Continuous Improvement.
Figure 11.12 Schematic of typical energy monitoring system (Drawn by author).

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Main Steps Involved in Product Design and Manufacturing (In practice, iterations among steps are often necessary).
Figure 12.2 A shaft example.
Figure 12.3 A semi-generative process planning method for reduced energy consumption.
Figure 12.4 CAD drawing of a shaft support.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Machine environments.
Figure 13.2 Gantt chart for a feasible schedule in Example 2.1.
Figure 13.3 Gantt chart for an infeasible schedule in Example 2.1.
Figure 13.4 Gantt chart for a feasible schedule in Example 2.2.
Figure 13.5 Gantt chart for infeasible schedule in Example 2.2.
Figure 13.6 Gantt chart for a feasible schedule in Example 2.3.
Figure 13.7 Gantt chart for a feasible schedule in Example 3.1.
Figure 13.8 Possible start times for job j on machine i processed at speed s.
Figure 13.9 Possible start times for job j on machine i processed at speed s if it is being processed in period u.
Figure 13.10 Gantt chart for an optimal schedule for the EEFS problem in Example 4.2. The indices in parentheses indicate the speed at which the job is processed.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Characteristics of supply chain structure.
Figure 14.2 Life-cycle energy of incandescent lamps, CFLs, and LED Lamps [42].

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Percentage of US energy consumption by sector.
Figure 15.2 Energy efficiency spending in the United States (billions).
Figure 15.3 Barriers to corporate energy efficient initiatives (% of respondents).
Figure 15.4 Reference model for project selection and adoption.
Figure 15.5 A general portfolio of energy efficiency projects.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Global Improvements in Manufacturing Energy Efficiency (1990–2012) [2, 3].
Figure 16.2 ISO 50001 (Energy Management Systems) Annual Corporate Certifications[6].
Figure 16.3 Energy flows to perform a turning operation.
Figure 16.4 System diagram showing how energy supports lathe and other functions.
Figure 16.5 An example of where energy is lost prior to becoming useful work [Adapted from 10].
Figure 16.6 U.S. manufacturing sector primary energy use [11].
Figure 16.7 Schematic illustrating energy consuming elements in a turning process.
Figure 16.8 Energy consumption in manufacturing: From a scope perspective.
Figure 16.9 Constrained decision space and the challenge of considering multiple objectives.
Figure 16.10 Increased consumption overwhelms improvements in efficiency per part.
Figure 16.11 The energy efficiency challenge – Selecting the best pathway to get to the outcome.
Figure 16.12 The energy effectiveness challenge – Which outcome should be pursued?
Figure 16.13 Global carbon emissions trends – Total and per capita [17].

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1a Operation conditions of machining relevant to energy consumption.
Table 2.1b Operation conditions of energy-beam based processes relevant to energy consumption.
Table 2.1c Operation conditions of forming processes relevant to energy consumption.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Emerging titanium processing technologies (Kraft 2004).
Table 3.2 Comparison of ceramic net-shaping processes.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Energy analysis of four milling machines [8].
Table 5.2 Machining parameters used in the experiments [28].
Table 5.3 Coolant application parameters used in the experiments [28].
Table 5.4 Optimal process parameters selected for all three coolant applications.
Table 5.5 Energy consumption and tool life from different cooling strategies [34].

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Specific energy comparison.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Summary of heat treating processes involving chemical diffusion into surfaces.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Selected sustainability indicators for joining processes.
Table 8.2 Reference values for thermal efficiencies of joining processes [11].
Table 8.3 Devices for measuring the energy consumption of welding.
Table 8.4 Specific melting energy for some commonly welded metals [23].
Table 8.5 Filler metals and brazing temperatures for brazing various metals and alloys.
Table 8.6 Comparison of commonly used joining methods [24].
Table 8.7 Minimum fillet leg distance based on the larger workpiece thickness being joined [24, 40].
Table 8.8 Density of electrode metals used in submerged arc welding.
Table 8.9 Specific Weld Energy based on TWA [45].
Table 8.10 Friction stir welding parameters and tool dimensions.

Chapter 10

Table 10.2 Energy influencing advantages and disadvantages of primary joining methods.
Table 10.3 Case study energy sources with associated energy data.
Table 10.4 Case study assembly process categorization.
Table 10.5 Processing equipment of the assembly station.
Table 10.6 Annual energy consumption - Battery.
Table 10.7 Annual energy consumption - Pneumatic.
Table 10.8 Direct and indirect process equipment annual energy consumption.
Table 10.9 Energy intensity by source.

Appendix 10.A

Table 10.A.1 Extended Process Categorization

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Technological characteristics of industrial lighting technologies.
Table 11.2 Summary of various heat loads in a manufacturing plant.
Table 11.3 Leakage rates (cfm) for different supply pressures and approximately equivalent orifice sizes [8].

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Process steps of manufacturing a shaft.
Table 12.2 The main characteristics of different production types.
Table 12.3 Reference numbers for the classification of production type.
Table 12.4 Routing sheet.
Table 12.5 Operations list.
Table 12.6 Operations precedence code.
Table 12.7 Operations precedence code.
Table 12.8 The energy consumption and carbon emissions of the final process plan.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Processing times and release dates for Example 2.1.
Table 13.2 Processing times for Example 2.2.
Table 13.3 Processing times and due dates for Example 2.3.
Table 13.4 Processing times and power demand for Example 3.1.
Table 13.5 Processing times, power demand, and release dates for Example 4.2.

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Supply chain processes.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Industrial End-Use Energy Efficiency Barriers (adapted from [7]).
Table 16.2 The Importance of Sustainability to My Organization’s Success Over the Next Few Years (adapted from [8]).
Table 16.3 Energy consuming elements of a machine tool (adapted from [9]).
Table 16.4 CTG Energy and Emissions for Automobile and Cell Phone [18].

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Sutherland, John W. (John William), 1958- editor. | Dornfeld, D. A.,
   editor. | Linke, Barbara S., editor.
Title: Energy efficient manufacturing : theory and applications / edited by
   John W. Sutherland, David A. Dornfeld and Barbara S. Linke.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons; Beverly, MA : Scrivener
   Publishing, 2018. | Includes index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2018010577 (print) | LCCN 2018015275 (ebook) | ISBN
   9781119519812 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119521372 (epub) | ISBN 9781118423844
   (cloth)
Subjects: LCSH: Manufacturing processes–Energy conservation. | Process
   control.
Classification: LCC TS183 (ebook) | LCC TS183 .E48 2018 (print) | DDC
   658.2/6–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018010577

Dedication

In March 2016, our good friend and mentor Professor David A. Dornfeld passed away. Dave was a constant source of inspiration and was always ready with a kind word and helpful suggestions. He was a passionate teacher and innovative researcher who made pioneering contributions to the fields of precision and sustainable manufacturing. Dave’s good natured personality, irrepressible humor, and intelligence elevated every meeting and conference he attended. He was active in many societies and received numerous honors. Dave was very inclusive and promoted talent where he saw it. His legacy is the many students, post-docs, and colleagues who benefitted from his excellent support, guidance, and advice.

We will miss you Dave!

John W. Sutherland
West Lafayette, IN

Barbara S. Linke
Davis, CA

June 2018

Theory and Applications

Dedication