Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Part I: Substrates for Coloration and Finishing

Chapter 1: Introduction to Textile Fibers: An Overview
1. 1.1 Introduction
2. 1.2 Classification
3. 1.3 Conclusion
4. References
Chapter 2: Effect of Processing and Type of Mechanical Loading on Performance of Bio-Fibers and Bio-Composites
1. 2.1 Introduction
2. 2.2 Extraction of Bio-Fibers
3. 2.3 Mechanical Loading
4. 2.4 Tensile Test
5. 2.5 Flexural Test
6. 2.6 Impact Test
7. 2.7 Tribological Performance
8. 2.8 Conclusion
9. References
Chapter 3: Mechanical and Chemical Structure of Natural Protein Fibers: Wool and Silk
1. 3.1 Introduction
2. 3.2 Wool
3. 3.3 Silk
4. 3.4 Conclusion
5. References

Part II: Renewable Colorants and Their Applications: A Revolutionary Approach

Chapter 4: Animal Based Natural Dyes: A Short Review
1. 4.1 Introduction of Natural Dyes
2. 4.2 Sustainability of Natural Dyes
3. 4.3 Classification of Natural Dyes
4. 4.4 Animal Based Natural Dyes
5. 4.5 Extraction Methodology
6. 4.6 Application of Animal Based Dyes
7. 4.7 Future Prospects
8. 4.8 Conclusion
9. Acknowledgment
10. References
Chapter 5: Natural Dyes and Pigments: Extraction and Applications
1. 5.1 Introduction
2. 5.2 Classification of Natural Dyes
3. 5.3 Extraction of Natural Dyes
4. 5.4 Natural Dyes Application
5. 5.5 Other Applications of Natural Dyes
6. 5.6 Conclusion and Future Outlook
7. References
Chapter 6: Lichen Derived Natural Colorants: History, Extraction, and Applications
1. 6.1 Introduction
2. 6.2 History
3. 6.3 Lichen Dyes and Industrial Revolution
4. 6.4 Extraction
5. 6.5 Dye Stuffs from Lichens
6. 6.6 Ways of Dyeing with Lichens
7. 6.7 Future Prospectus and Conclusion
8. Acknowledgement
9. References
Chapter 7: Chlorophylls as Pigment: A Contemporary Approach
1. 7.1 Introduction
2. 7.2 Molecular Structure and Physico-Chemical Characterization
3. 7.3 Coloring Aspects
4. 7.4 Characterization and Quality Control
5. 7.5 Conclusion and Future Outlook
6. References
Chapter 8: Contemporary Revolutions in Natural Dyes: Extraction and Dyeing Methodology
1. 8.1 Introduction
2. 8.2 Pros and Cons of Natural Dyes
3. 8.3 Classification of Natural Dyes
4. 8.4 Extraction Methodology
5. 8.5 Exploration of New Plants Using Modern Tools to Maintain Sustainability
6. 8.6 Conclusion
7. Acknowledgment
8. References
Chapter 9: A Review on Phytochemistry, Pharmacological and Coloring Potential of Lawsonia Inermis
1. 9.1 Introduction
2. 9.2 Phytochemistry
3. 9.3 Pharmacological Potential
4. 9.4 Coloring Potential
5. 9.5 Conclusion and Future Outlook
6. References
Chapter 10: Sustainable Application of Natural Dyes in Cosmetic Industry
1. 10.1 Introduction
2. 10.2 Classification of Natural Dyes
3. 10.3 Application of Natural Dyes in Cosmetics
4. 10.4 Methods of Application as Hair Colorant
5. 10.5 Natural Dyes as Hair Colorant
6. 10.6 Advantages/Merits
7. 10.7 Disadvantages/Demerits
8. 10.8 Conclusion
9. Acknowledgments
10. References
Chapter 11: Application of Natural Dyes to Cotton and Jute Textiles: Science and Technology and Environmental Issues
1. 11.1 Introduction
2. 11.2 Extraction of Color Solution from the Sources of Natural Dyes
3. 11.3 Purification of Selected Natural Dyes
4. 11.4 Testing and Characterization of Purified Natural Dyes Before its Application to Textiles
5. 11.5 Mechanism of Complex Formation Amongst Dye-Mordant and Fiber for Fixation of Natural Dyes on Different Fibers
6. 11.6 Technological Aspects of Natural Dyeing to Cotton and Jute: Effect of Different Mordants
7. 11.7 Study of Dyeing Kinetics for Dyeing Jack Fruit Wood on Cotton and Jute Fabrics
8. 11.8 Study of Compatibility of Binary and Ternary Mixture of Natural dyes to Obtain Compound Shade
9. 11.9 Test of Compatibility for Selected Binary Mixture of Natural Dyes
10. 11.10 Some Recent Studies on Natural Dyes for Textiles
11. 11.11 Conclusions
12. References
Chapter 12: Bio-Colorants as Photosensitizers for Dye Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC)
1. 12.1 Introduction
2. 12.2 Operational Principle of the DSSCs
3. 12.3 DSSC Components
4. 12.4 Conclusion and Future Outlook
5. References

Part III: Advanced Materials and Technologies for Coloration and Finishing

Chapter 13: Advanced Materials and Technologies for Antimicrobial Finishing of Cellulosic Textiles
1. 13.1 Cellulosic Fibers
2. 13.2 Wet Processing of Cellulosic Textiles
3. 13.3 Antimicrobial Finishing of Cellulosic Textiles
4. 13.4 Traditional Antimicrobial Finishing Chemicals, Application Methods, and Disadvantages
5. 13.5 Advanced Antimicrobial Agents
6. 13.6 Evaluation of Antimicrobial Products
7. 13.7 Potential Applications
8. 13.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects
9. Reference
Chapter 14: Bio-Macromolecules: A New Flame Retardant Finishing Strategy for Textiles
1. 14.1 Introduction
2. 14.2 The Role of Bio-Macromolecules as Flame Retardant Systems: Structure-Property Relationships
3. 14.3 Current Limitations
4. 14.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
5. Acknowledgements
6. Reference
Chapter 15: Significant Trends in Nano Finishes for Improvement of Functional Properties of Fabrics
1. 15.1 Introduction
2. 15.2 Significance of Nanotechnology
3. 15.3 Application of Nanotechnology in Textiles
4. 15.4 Nanotechnology for Improved Fabric Finishing
5. 15.5 Problem Associated with Nanotechnology
6. 15.6 Nano Safe Textile Finishes with Papaya Peel and Silver
7. 15.7 Plasma Induced Finishes for Multifunctional Properties
8. 15.8 Nano Finishes Adopting Green Approach
9. 15.9 Multi Functional Nano Finish on Denim Fabrics
10. 15.10 Role of Silk Sericin in Nano Finishing with Silver Particles
11. 15.11 Improvement in Coloration and Antimicrobial Properties in Silk Fabrics with Aqueous Binders
12. 15.12 Nanoparticles for Improving Flame Retardant Properties of Fabrics
13. 15.13 Application of Herbal Synthesized Silver Nano Particles on Cotton Fabric
14. 15.14 Conclusion
15. References
Chapter 16: Rot Resistance and Antimicrobial Finish of Cotton Khadi Fabrics
1. 16.1 Introduction
2. 16.2 Anti Microbial Treatment
3. 16.3 Some Important Study on Eco-Friendly Antimicrobial Finishing of Cotton Khadi Fabric
4. 16.4 Effect of Varying Concentration Level of Chitosan and PEG for Application of Mixture of Chitosan and PEG on Microbial and Other Properties of Cotton Khadi Fabric with CA and SHP as Mixed Catalyst and Their Optimization
5. 16.5 Characterization of Control and Treated Cotton Fabrics by FTIR, TGA, and X-RD Analysis
6. 16.6 Study of Residual Antimicrobial Effect after Repeated Washing Cycles
7. 16.7 Analysis of Surface Properties by SEM
8. 16.8 Conclusion
9. Acknowledgement
10. Reference
Chapter 17: Advanced Technologies for Coloration and Finishing Using Nanotechnology
1. 17.1 Introduction
2. 17.2 Nanoparticles in Dyes
3. 17.3 Nano Finishing
4. 17.4 Encapsulation Technology
5. 17.5 Conclusion
6. References
Chapter 18: Sol–Gel Flame Retardant and/or Antimicrobial Finishings for Cellulosic Textiles
1. 18.1 Introduction
2. 18.2 The Sol–Gel Process
3. 18.3 Current Limitations
4. 18.4 Conclusions and Future Outlook
5. References

Part IV: Sustainability

Chapter 19: Sustainable Coloration and Value Addition to Textiles
1. 19.1 Introduction
2. 19.2 Sustainable Coloration of Textile Materials
3. 19.3 Easy Care Finishing of Textile Products
4. 19.4 Antimicrobial Finishing of Textiles
5. 19.5 Flame Retardant Finishing of Textile
6. 19.6 UV Protective Textile
7. 19.7 Mosquito, Insect and Moth Repellent Finishing of Textile
8. 19.8 Irradiation-Induced Value Addition to Textiles
9. 19.9 Enzyme-Based Textile Pretreatment
10. 19.10 Bio-Mimic Based Value Addition to Textile
11. 19.11 Conclusion and Future Outlook
12. References
Chapter 20: Interconnection Between Biotechnology and Textile: A New Horizon of Sustainable Technology
1. 20.1 Introduction
2. 20.2 Influence of Bioprocess on Textile
3. 20.3 Influence of Textile on Biotechnology
4. 20.4 Conclusion
5. References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1: Classification of textile fibers on the basis of their origin.
Figure 1.2: Broad categorization of textile fibers.
Figure 1.3: Chemical structure of protein fibers.
Figure 1.4: Chemical structure of cellulosic fibers.
Figure 1.5: Chemical structure of synthetic fibers.
Figure 1.6: Chemical structure of semi-synthetic textile fibers.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1: Various applications of bio-fibers and its fabric.
Figure 2.2: Treatment of bio-fibers/fabric.
Figure 2.3: Extraction and processing stages of bio based fibers.
Figure 2.4: Variants of bio based textile fabric.
Figure 2.5: Specification of test specimen for polymer composites in mechanical testing.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1: Schematic diagram of the morphological components of single fine wool fiber.
Figure 3.2: The typical structure of amino acids present in wool (R = side chain).
Figure 3.3: Chemical bonding in wool.
Figure 3.4: Schematically complex formation of wool functional groups, mordant, and dye molecule
Figure 3.5: Scanning electron micrograph of silk fiber.
Figure 3.6: (a) In vivo processing in silk glands, and (b) Natural spinning by silkworms to produce fibroin fibers with unique features. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier Ltd Copyright 2015.
Figure 3.7: Various morphologies of silk and silkworm (Bombyxmori). (a) The raw silk consists of two fibroin fibers held together with a layer of sericin on their surfaces. After degumming to remove sericin, the fibroin fibers are dissolved in lithium bromide solution followed by dialyzing against ultrapure water or polyethylene glycol to obtain regenerated fibroin solution, (b) Mature silkworm and produced cocoon, (c) Silk braided, knitted, and non-woven matrices constructed from the fibroin fibers, and (d) Silk sponges, hydrogels, films, nanofibrous mats, microparticles, and microneedles constructed from the regenerated fibroin solution. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier Ltd Copyright 2015.
Figure 3.8: Chemical structure of silk.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1: Flow sheet diagram of Natural dye’s classification and their application.
Figure 4.2: (a) Cochineal insect on prickly pear cacti (b) Cochineal dye powder (c) Carminic acid (C.I. Natural Red 4).
Figure 4.3: Calcium-aluminium lake of Carminic acid.
Figure 4.4: Polish Cochineal.
Figure 4.5: Armenian Cochineal.
Figure 4.6: (a) Kermes insect (b) Kermes dye powder (c) Kermesic acid (C.I. Natural Red 3).
Figure 4.7: (a) Lac insects (b) Dye powder.
Figure 4.8: C.I. Natural Red 25 (a) Laccaic acid A (b) Laccaic acid B (c) Laccaic acid C (d) Laccaic acid D (e) Laccaic acid E (f) Erythrolaccin.
Figure 4.9: Bolinusbrandaris.
Figure 4.10: Hexaplex trunculus.
Figure 4.11: Stramonita haemastoma.
Figure 4.12: (a) Tyrian purple dye powder (b)????.
Figure 4.13: Mechanism of action to produce 6,6’-dibromoindigo.
Figure 4.14: (a) Dolabella auricularia (b) Aplysioviolin (c) Dolabellin (d) Auriside A (e) Dolastatin 10.
Figure 4.15: (a) Bi-coordination of Lac dye with TiO₂ (b) Double bi-coordination of Lac dye with TiO₂.
Figure 4.16: Hydrogen bonding in tyrian purple.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1: Structures of quinones.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1: Color wheal for lichen dyes.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1: Structure of some natural chlorophylls.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1: Classification of natural dyes.
Figure 8.2: (a) Pomegranate and its bark powder (b) Granatonine.
Figure 8.3: (a) Australian Pine and its important compounds (b) Ellagic acid (c) Gallic acid (d) Kaempferol (e) Quercetin.
Figure 8.4: (a) Bush grape (b) Pelargonidin (c) Cyanidin (d) Delphinidin (e) Peonidin (f) Petunidin (g) Malvidin.
Figure 8.5: (a) Butterfly pea (b) Taraxerol (c) Taraxerone.
Figure 8.6: (a) Mugava (a) and one of the colorants (b) Coumarin.
Figure 8.7: (a) Jack Fruit (b) Morin (c) Arotonin (d) Isocycloheterophyllin.
Figure 8.8: (a) Larkspur and colorants can be obtained are (b) Isorhamnetin (c) Apigenin.
Figure 8.9: Tea Oil Plant.
Figure 8.10: (a) Chaste tree (b) Luteolin-7-glucoside (c) Casticin (d) Artemetin.
Figure 8.11: Chinese sumac.
Figure 8.12: (a) Limoniastrum (b)Myrecetin (c) Protocatechuic acid (d) Chlorogenic acid (e)Trans-cinnamic acid.
Figure 8.13: (a) Yerba mate (b) Rutin.
Figure 8.14: Camphor tree or Camphor wood.
Figure 8.15: (a) Basil or Tulsi (b) Salvigenin.
Figure 8.16: Fennel.
Figure 8.17: (a) Indian Paper Plant (b) Genkwanin (c) Dephnetin-8-glucoside (d) Yuanhuanin.
Figure 8.18: (a) Guava (b) Myrecetin-3-O-β-D-glucoside (c) Hyperin.
Figure 8.19: (a) Scarlet sage or red salvia (b) Salvianin (c) Monardaein.
Figure 8.20: (a) Sandalwood (b) Santalin.
Figure 8.21: (a) Centaury (b) Hypericin.
Figure 8.22: Cavitation effect of ultrasonic energy.
Figure 8.23: Effect of electromagnetic radiation on polar molecules.
Figure 8.24: Principle of plasma treatment (Ref).
Figure 8.25: (a) Harmal (b) Harmane (c) Harmine (d) Harmaline (e) Harmalol.
Figure 8.26: (a) Saffron petals (b) Saffron Stigma (c) Crocin.
Figure 8.27: (a–c) Madder plant, its Roots and powder, respectively (d) Alizarin.
Figure 8.28: (a–c) Safflower, its dry petals and powder, respectively (d) Carthamin.
Figure 8.29: (a) Arjun bark (b) Baicalein (c) Ellagic acid (d) Arjunic acid (e) Arjunolic acid.
Figure 8.30: (a) Chicken gizzard Colored foliage (b) Betacyanin.
Figure 8.31: Calico plant Leaves.
Figure 8.32: Golden Duranta.
Figure 8.32: (a) Marigold Flowers (b) Structure of Lutein.
Figure 8.33: (a) Milkweed plant (b) Chlorophyll.
Figure 8.34: (a) Neem Bark (b) Tannin.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1: Lawsonia inermis plant (1), fruits (2), seed (3), powdered leaves (4), essential oil (5), body arts (6,7), and cave paintings (8,9).
Figure 9.2: Structures of flavonoids.
Figure 9.3: Structures of naphthoquinones.
Figure 9.4: Structures of naphthalenes.
Figure 9.5: Structures of acetylenes.
Figure 9.6: Structures of alkyl phenones.
Figure 9.7: Structures of xanthones.
Figure 9.8: Structures of coumarins.
Figure 9.9: Structures of tannins.
Figure 9.10: Structures of lignans.
Figure 9.11: Structures of other phenolic compounds.
Figure 9.12: Structures of terpenoids.
Figure 9.13: Structure of lawsaritol.
Figure 9.14: Structures of alkaloids.
Figure 9.15: Structures of other miscellaneous compounds.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1: Indican.
Figure 10.2: Alizarin.
Figure 10.3: Carthamin.
Figure 10.4: Curcumin.
Figure 10.5: Crocin.
Figure 10.6: Bixin.
Figure 10.7: Emodin.
Figure 10.8: Carminic acid.
Figure 10.9: Mineral pigments.
Figure 10.10: Lawsone.
Figure 10.11: Lawsonia inermis.
Figure 10.12: Design and color or Lawsonia inermis leaves paste.
Figure 10.13: Indican.
Figure 10.14: Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.
Figure 10.15: Phyllanthus emblica.
Figure 10.16: Betalain.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1: UV-VIS spectra of aqueous extract of color component of selective natural dyes.
Figure 11.2: FTIR spectra of purified natural dyes (a) Red Sandal Wood (b) Jackfruit Wood and (c) Manjistha.
Figure 11.3: FTIR spectra of purified natural dyes (d) Marigold (e) Babool and (f) Sappan Wood.
Figure 11.4: DSC Thermo grams of purified natural dyes (a) Babool (b) Jackfruit Wood (c) Red Sandal Wood (d) Sappan Wood € Marigold and (F) Manjistha.
Figure 11.5: Mechanism of fixation of natural dyes through mordants.
Figure 11.6: (a-g): Effects of dyeing process variables on color strength of jute and cotton fabrics dyed with jackfruit wood extract after double pre-mordanting with harda and aluminium sulphate and harda and ferrous sulphate.
Figure 11.7: Dye exhaustion curves for different dyeing time.
Figure 11.8: (a and a’): Dyeing isotherms for bleached jute fabrics dyed with jackfruit wood extract at 90 °C [Jute: (a) 20% harda + 20% Al₂(S0₄)₃; (b) Jute: 20% harda + 20% FeSO₄]. (b & b’): Dyeing isotherms for bleached cotton fabrics dyed with jackfruit wood extract at 90 °C [Cotton: (a’) 20% harda + 20% Al₂(S0₄)₃ and (b’) Cotton 20% harda +20% FeSO₄].
Figure 11.9: Plots of K/S vs.ΔL (a-e) and ΔC vs.ΔLfor dyeings of five separate pairs (M1 to M5) of natural dyes on premordanted cotton fabrics.M1-a and a^| M2-b and b^| M3-c and c^| M4-d and d^| M5-e and e^|

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1: Schematic diagram for DSSC.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1: Chemical structure of cellulose.
Figure 13.2: Key steps in wet processing of cotton cellulose textiles.
Figure 13.3: Different types of action of antimicrobial agents.
Figure 13.4: Example for the quaternary ammonium compound.
Figure 13.5: Chemical structure of poly(hexamethylenebiguanide)
Figure 13.6: General chemical structure of N-halamine compounds. R₁, R₂ = H or Cl or Br or organic group or inorganic group. X = Cl or Br or I [81].
Figure 13.7: Different examples of inorganic N-halamine compounds [81].
Figure 13.8: Different examples of organic cyclic N-halamine compounds [81].
Figure 13.9: Chemical structure of triclosan.
Figure 13.10: Chemical structure of chitosan.
Figure 13.11: SEM for a, c untreated and b, d cotton treated with Aloe vera (3 %) [68].
Figure 13.12: SEM photographs of microcapsules of chitosan and gelatin [107].
Figure 13.13: SEM photographs of cotton fabrics before and after treating with the microcapsules [107].
Figure 13.14: Example for the methods used for immobilizing organic NPs onto cotton surfaces [108]. “Durable antimicrobial cotton textiles modified with inorganic nanoparticles”, Y.Y. Zhang, 2016, Cellulose, 23 (5), 2798. Copyright 2016, Springer, Reprinted with permission.
Figure 13.15: Systematic structure for the binders linking the inorganic NPs and cellulose chains by covalent bonds [108].
Figure 13.16: The life cycle of textile treated with AgNPs[117].
Figure 13.17: Schematic structure of cellulose nucleation and chemisorption of Cu₂O nanoparticles on fabric surface [115].

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1: Scheme of the self-sustaining combustion cycle for textiles.
Figure 14.2: Scheme of the Proban^® process.
Figure 14.3: Scheme of the Pyrovatex^® process.
Figure 14.4: Scheme of the LbL method applied to fabrics.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1: Visible UV-spectra of silver nanoparticles [25].
Figure 15.2: X-ray diffraction showing DLS pattern of papaya peel derived silver nanoparticles [25].
Figure 15.3: XRD of green silver nanoparticles [25].
Figure 15.4: Effect of washing on UPF of finished fabric [39].
Figure 15.5: Effect of washing on LOI values of the finished samples [39].
Figure 15.6: Crease recovery angle of control and finished samples [39].
Figure 15.7: FTIR spectra of BTCA treated samples, control cotton, with and without plasma [39].
Figure 15.8: Tensile strength and elongation of finished samples [39].
Figure 15.9: UV-spectra of nanoparticles form using 3, 4, & 5% A. indica leaves extract solutions [62].
Figure 15.10: EDS analysis of silver nanoparticles [62].
Figure 15.11: In-vitro release of Ag nanoparticles coated on cotton fabric [62].
Figure 15.12: Zone of inhibition (mm) of silver nanocoated cotton sample against various bacterial species [62].
Figure 15.13: Relationship between wave length and relative spectral effectiveness [76].
Figure 15.14: UV Spectra of (i) sericin, (ii) AGNP before capping and (iii) sericin capped AGNP [93].

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1: XP C1s of (a) control fabric, (b) fabric treated with 2% PEG under CA and SHP mixed catalyst system, (c) fabric treated with 2% PEG and 2% Chitosan mixture under CA and SHP mixed catalyst system, and (d) fabric treated with PEG and PHAMS under CA+SHP catalyst.
Figure 16.2: XP N1s of (a) control fabric, (b) fabric treated with 2% PEG under CA and SHP mixed Catalyst system, and (c) fabric treated with 2% PEG and Chitosan under CA and SHP mixed catalyst system.
Figure 16.3: XP O1s of (a) control fabric (b) fabric treated with 2% PEG under CA and SHP mixed Catalyst system and (c) fabric treated with 2% PEG and Chitosan under CA and SHP mixed catalyst system, and (d) fabric treated with 6% PEG and 2% PHAMS under CA+SHP Catalyst.
Figure 16.4: Presence of two microbes Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae after 24 hours of incubation for (a) fabric treated with 2% Chitosan and 2% PEG (under CA and SHP catalyst), (b) fabric treated with 2% EPTAC, and (c) fabric treated with 2% PHAMS and 6% PEG.
Figure 16.5: FTIR spectra of (a) untreated cotton, (b) cotton treated with mixture of 6% PEG and 2% PHAMS, (c) cotton treated with 2% PEG, and (d) cotton treated with mixture of 2% PEG and 2% Chitosan.
Figure 16.6: TGA diagram of (a), control fabric (b), fabric treated with mixture of 6% PEG and 2% PHAMS, and (c) fabric treated with 2% PEG and 2% Chitosan.
Figure 16.7: TGA derivative of (a) control fabric, (b) fabric treated with mixture of 2% PEG and 6% PHAMS, and (c) fabric treated with mixture 2% PEG and 2% Chitosan.
Figure 16.8: (a) SEM cross-section of control fiber and (b) SEM cross-section of fiber treated with 2% PEG and 2% chitosan.
Figure 16.9: SEM of (a) untreated cotton, the surface of which is smooth enough as compared to cotton treated individually with (b) PEG (c) PEG and Chitosan, and (d) PEG and PHAMS. The fabric treated with PEG and PHAMS (d) shows anchoring of the PHAMS on the surface of cellulose (cotton).

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1: Contact angle measurement.
Figure 17.2: Water on the hydrophobic lotus leaves.
Figure 17.3: Antimicrobial action of nanoparticles.
Figure 17.4: Nanocoated self-cleaning textile.

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1: Sol–gel reactions carried out in acidic conditions (M=(semi)metal, such as Ti, Si).
Figure 18.2: Classification of sol–gel antimicrobial coatings.

Chapter 20

Figure 20.1: Biotechnology at a glance.
Figure 20.2: Structure of Chitin and Chitosan.
Figure 20.3: Sodium Alginate.
Figure 20.4: Structure of Sericin.
Figure 20.5: Structure of Cyclodextrin.
Figure 20.6: Structure of Poly lactic acid.
Figure 20.7: Bacterial Polyester.
Figure 20.8: Desizing of Starch into Glucose.
Figure 20.9: Application of different enzymes in textile processing.

List of Tables

Chapter 3

Table 3.1: Several amino acids present in wool.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1: Comparison Between Carminic Acid and Carmine.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1: Chemical structures of some coloring compounds obtained from different lichen species.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1: Some algae based pigments.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1: Conditions of Extraction of Natural dye from source materials.
Table 11.2: UV-VIS absorbance peaks at different wavelength for purified selective natural dyes.
Table 11.3: Spectroscopic data table for FTIR bands/peaks of selective purified natural dyes.
Table 11.4: DSC- Thermal transition temperatures of extracted and purified natural dyes used.
Table 11.5: Mordanting conditions for sequential double mordanting jute and cotton fabric.
Table 11.6: Tensile properties, bending length, surface color strength and color differences of jute and cotton fabrics treated with selective single mordants (without dyeing).
Table 11.7: Tensile properties, bending length, color strength and color differences of jute and cotton fabrics treated with selective double mordants (without dyeing).
Table 11.8: Brightness index, surface color strength and color differences at different and color fastness of dyed jute and cotton fabrics using jackfruit wood extract after single mordanting with selective mordants.
Table 11.9: Brightness index, surface color strength and color differences and color fastness of dyed jute and cotton fabrics using jackfruit wood extract after sequential double mordanting with selective mordants.
Table 11.10: Data showing the surface color strength of the process variables for bleached jute and cotton fabrics dyed with jackfruit wood and double pre-mordanted with harda and Al₂(SO₄)₃ and harda and FeSO₄.
Table 11.11: Effects of pH of the dye liquor on color fastness properties for jute and cotton fabrics for two different mordanting systems for dyeing with Jackfruit wood colorants.
Table 11.12: Data showing dye exhaustion to the fiber for different dyeing time indicating rate of dyeing for application of jackfruit wood extract as natural dye on bleached jute and cotton fabrics using different double pre-mordanting systems (a), (a’),(b) & (b’).
Table 11.13: Experimental values of thermodynamic parameters for dyeing of jute and cotton with Jackfruit wood color extract after double pre-mordanting with 20% harda and 20% Al₂(SO₄)₃ applied in sequence [premordanting system (a) & (a’) and (b) and b’].
Table 11.14: Experimental values of thermodynamic parameters for dyeing of jute and cotton with Jackfruit wood color extract after double pre-mordanting with 20% harda and 20% FeSO₄ applied in sequence [premordanting system (b) & (b’)].
Table 11.15: Color strength, brightness Index and related parameters of pre-mordanted cotton fabrics dyed with natural dye individually at comparable shade depth.
Table 11.16: Color strength, brightness Index and related parameters of pre-mordanted cotton fabrics dyed with selected binary pairs of mixture of natural dyes in different proportions.
Table 11.17: Color difference index (CDI) and relative compatibility rating (RCR) for application of selected binary pairs of natural dyes to premordated cotton fabrics.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1: Photochemical parameters of natural dyes based DSSCs.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1: Possible Functional Finishes for Cellulosic Textiles.
Table 13.2: Using of Chitosan/Chitosan Derivatives for Antimicrobial Functionalization of Cellulosic Substrates.
Table 13.3: Some Antimicrobial Agents Based on Natural Products for Antimicrobial Functionalization of Cellulosic Textiles.
Table 13.4: Application of Different Nanomaterials on Cellulosic Fabrics for Antimicrobial Functionalization.
Table 13.5: Some Nanocomposite and Hybrid Materials Used for Antimicrobial Functionalization of Cellulosic Materials.
Table 13.6: Test Methods for Evaluation of Antimicrobial Activity of Textiles.
Table 13.7: Some Potential Applications of Antimicrobial Products.

Chapter 14

Table 14.1: Thermogravimetric data of neat and treated cotton fabrics.
Table 14.2: Flammability data of untreated and treated cotton fabrics.
Table 14.3: Thermogravimetric data of untreated and treated fabrics.
Table 14.4: Horizontal flame spread and LOI data for untreated and casein-treated fabrics.
Table 14.5: Cone calorimetry data for untreated and caseintreated fabrics.
Table 14.6: Thermo gravimetric data of untreated and hydrophobins-treated cotton fabrics in nitrogen and air.
Table 14.7: Flammability data of untreated and hydrophobin-treated cotton fabrics.
Table 14.8: Thermogravimetric data of pure and DNA-treated cotton fabrics in nitrogen and air.
Table 14.9: Flammability data of untreated and DNA-treated cotton fabrics.
Table 14.10: Combustion data of untreated and DNA-treated cotton fabrics.
Table 14.11: Flammability data of untreated and LbL-treated cotton fabrics.
Table 14.12: Cone calorimetry data of untreated and LbL-treated cotton fabrics.

Chapter 15

Table 15.1: Standard grades of UPF and its classification based on AATCC 183 [76].

Chapter 16

Table 16.1: Effect of treatment with Cetrimide, PEG-200, Chitosan and PEG, PHAMS and their mixtures on properties of cotton Khadi fabric.
Table 16.2: Effect of varying concentration level of Chitosan and PEG for application of mixture of Chitosan and PEG on microbial and other properties Cotton Khadi fabric with CA and SHP as mixed catalyst.
Table 16.3: Derivatization of the functional elements present in the treated and control cotton Khadi fabric by area percentage.
Table 16.4: Observation of presence of bacteria after 24 hours of Incubation as per AATCC 147-2011 standard.
Table 16.5: Bacteria reduction percentage of treated Khadi fabric after 24 hours of test culture in the incubation conditions at 37 °C for 24 hours as per AATCC 100-2012 standard.
Table 16.6: Bacteria reduction percentage of treated Khadi fabric after 24 hours of test culture in the incubation condition of 37 °C for 24 hours.
Table 16.7: FTIR Spectra of Cotton Showing Common Specific Peaks/Trough.
Table 16.8: Residue leftover at different stages of temperature for treated and untreated Khadi fabric.
Table 16.9: Crystallinity and orientation values of treated and untreated cotton Khadi fabric.
Table 16.10: Effect of antimicrobial finishes after many washing.
Table 16.11: Comparative data for tenacity retention percentage and antimicrobial properties treated cotton Khadi fabric.

Chapter 18

Table 18.1: Main characteristics of sol–gel finishing processes performed on fabrics.
Table 18.2: Influence of the presence of different smoke suppressants in sol–gel derived coatings applied to cotton, as assessed by cone calorimetry tests (adapted from [36]).

Chapter 20

Table 20.1: Application of the biopolymers.
Table 20.2: Natural pigments obtained from microorganisms.
Table 20.3: Different antimicrobial tests methods by AATCC.
Table 20.4: Hydrolase enzymes and their substrate.

This edition first published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Yusuf, Mohd, editor.
Title: Handbook of renewable materials for coloration and finishing / edited by Mohd Yusuf.
Description: Beverly, MA: Scrivener Publishing, [2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2018023712 (print) | LCCN 2018024646 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119407843 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119407867 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119407751
(hardcover)
Subjects: LCSH: Dyes and dyeing–Textile fibers–Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Dye plants–Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Biological products–Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Green chemistry–Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Classification: LCC TP919 (ebook) | LCC TP919 .H36 2018 (print) | DDC 667/.20286–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018023712

Preface

A sustainable world requires the utilization of renewable materials or resources that can be produced in huge quantities for a wide range of applications. To adopt the use of active materials for textile coloration and finishing, they should reach the technical demands of the modern world such as eco-preservation, economic and ecological requirements. Therefore, there is a need to discuss and understand the challenges and solutions of textile coloration and functional finishing methodologies.

An attempt is to be made to give the handbook a multidisciplinary dimension through technological perspectives to perform further research regarding new opportunities and sustainable products. As a matter of fact, this book is oriented to give general to specific knowledge to the readers working in the field of textile engineering step by step. The purpose of the handbook is to provide reference material that includes basic principles and current developments in the field of natural coloration and finishing.

The handbook is divided into four segments; Substrates for Coloration and Finishing, Renewable Colorants and their Applications, Advanced Materials and Technologies for Coloration and Finishing and Sustainability.

Part I contains three chapters that overview the systematic discussion on the suitability, physical, chemical and processing aspects of substrates for coloration and finishing. Part II includes nine chapters and covers in-depth arguments on renewable colorants and their various applications including a chapter on bio-colorant’s application as photosensitizers for dye sensitized solar cells. Part III contains five chapters in which modern advancements and processing methods/technologies for coloration and functional finishing are presented comprehensively. Part IV contains two chapters that provide sustainable aspects of coloration and finishing. Overall, the Handbook of Renewable Materials for Coloration and Finishing provides a vivid digest on the most important topics that will surely be beneficial to academicians, industry scientists and students. Additionally, the book will be a useful instrument to overview the fragmented situation and support a rapid and efficient entry into the emerging field of green and sustainable chemistry.

My sincere thanks go to the eminent authors for their priceless contributions. I welcome our readers valuable comments, which will help to improve future volumes.

I express my appreciation to Dr. M. I. Khan, Principal, YMD College, Nuh, Haryana for his worthy suggestions and moral support. My deep sense of cordiality goes to my colleague and friend Dr. M. Shahid, Marie Quire Fellow, University of Glasgow, Scotland for discussion, careful advice, critique and valuable suggestions. Also, I am thankful to my parents (Mohd Yasin and Mrs. Sakina Yasin) and spouse (Mrs. Salma Yusuf) for their moral support, beneficial and careful efforts.

Particularly, I would like to express my sincere thanks to Scrivener Publishing for inviting me to compile the book.

Mohd Yusuf
(Editor)
Head
Department of Chemistry
YMD College, M. D. University, Nuh
Haryana 122107 India

May 2018

Chapter 1
Introduction to Textile Fibers: An Overview

Mohd Shabbira* and Faqeer Mohammad

Department of Chemistry, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India

^*Corresponding author: shabbirmeo@gmail.com

Abstract

Basic molecular units or the monomeric units of macromolecules or polymers decide the characteristic features of them. Textile fiber is a material mainly made from natural or synthetic sources. The fibers are transformed to make various products such as yarns, knitted, woven or nonwoven fabrics, and carpets. A growing textile industry is always in search of new materials, whether these are the resources of textile fibers or the other functional materials. Textile fibers can be obtained naturally from animals and various parts of plants, while a lot of synthetic or semi-synthetic textile fibers are being produced in the laboratories that are developed at industrial scale later. This chapter highlights the various kinds of textile fibers, concisely.

Keywords: Textile, Fibers, Polymers, Materials

1.1 Introduction

Textile fibers have been utilized to make clothes for several thousand years. Wool, flax, cotton, and silk were commonly used textile fibers. Textile fibers are characterized by their several value added virtues such as flexibility, fineness, and large length in relation to the maximum transverse dimension. In general, evolution of human being is thought about behavioral and mind strength changes, but it is also accompanied with the understanding of clothing on the basis of availability of resources and protection against environmental changes. Now clothing has been considered as second basic need of mankind after food. Present scenario of the world demands not only the protection of human body but also the comfortness via clothing [1]. Textile fibers have been discovered or developed from natural resources in the starting and with scientific growth, the synthetic fibers. These have been utilized to develop textiles of various characteristics such as wool for thermoregulation, silk for shining colors, cotton for softness, and bamboo fiber textiles for antimicrobial characteristics [2, 3]. First manufactured fiber was produced commercially on 1885 and was produced from fibers of plants and animals. Since from the past, there are many types of textile fibers that have been used or developed in textile production such as cloth, rope, household etc. [2, 3, 4, 5]. This chapter is all about concise overview of the classification of textile fibers.

1.2 Classification

Textile fibers can be classified on different basis; depending on their chemical structures, resources, and their production methods.

On the basis of their origin, textile fibers are classified into three categories, which can be further classified in to several groups (Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2).

**Figure 1.1** Classification of textile fibers on the basis of their origin.

**Figure 1.2** Broad categorization of textile fibers.

1.2.1 Natural fibers

Textile fibers obtained from plants and animals fall into this category.

Wool and silk are the examples of natural fibers obtained from animals (sheep and silkworm). These fibers are protein based with respect to their chemical structure (Figure 1.3). Amino acids are the repeating units in their chemical structure. Wool fibers are well known for their characteristics such as heat insulation, fire resistance, and high dyeability. Another protein fiber silk also have some peculiar characteristics such as smoothness, light reflection and anti-crease [6, 7].

**Figure 1.3** Chemical structure of protein fibers.

A range of natural fibers are produced from plant parts (Figure 1.4), such as cotton (seed hairs), flex and hemp (stem fibers), sisal (leaf fibers), husk fibers and coir (coconut). These fibers have their specific characteristics and exclusively utilized for them, such as cotton is used for the summer clothing for its comfort on human skin. Many of them are used for ropes, mattresses, geo-textiles other than clothing [8, 9, 10].

**Figure 1.4** Chemical structure of cellulosic fibers.

1.2.2 Synthetic Fibers

These fibers are synthesized in laboratories via chemical reactions of precursor molecules (Figure 1.5).

**Figure 1.5** Chemical structure of synthetic fibers.

Polyesters (poly-ethylene terephthalate (PET), poly-butylene succinate (PBS), and poly lactic acid (PLA)) are the synthetic fibers that have ester linkage in between their monomeric units.

Nylon is a synthetic fiber like polyester derived from petrochemicals. It is a versatile fiber and used for various kinds of applications such as stockings and parachutes, carpets, packaging and even car parts. Nylons are a group of materials called polyamides. Nylon is also not much suited to natural dyes and some chemical dyes, so need high efforts for coloration.

Acrylic fibers are also a type of synthetic fibers made from a polymer polyacrylonitrile with an average molecular weight of ~100,000, about 1900 monomer units. Acrylic is lightweight, soft, and warm, with a woollike feel [11, 12, 13].

1.2.3 Semi-Synthetic Fibers

Rayon is an artificial textile material composed of reconstituted or regenerated cellulose compounds. It has polymer chain structure from nature and is only modified and partially degraded by chemical processes, so called a semi-synthetic fiber (Figure 1.6). On the basis of properties variation, rayon also developed into fibers such as viscose rayon, high wet modulus (HWM) rayon and lyocell etc. [1, 3].

**Figure 1.6** Chemical structure of semi-synthetic textile fibers.

1.3 Conclusion

Population explosion and high awareness among people created more choices of clothing as well as their demands. To meet the needs of this generation, higher attention towards high productivity resources and qualitative research is required. Productivity of animal fibers such as wool and silk can be increased by improving farming practices. Inherent properties of wool and silk can also be improvised with the help of materials (nanomaterials and plasma etc.) and modern techniques. Textile fibers (cotton, jute, hemp etc.) obtained from plants are the good alternatives as these are considered as biocompatible and produced from never ending resources that are plants. Production of plant based textile fibers simultaneously can provide benefits toward environment and human health. Regenerated cellulosic fibers among synthetic fibers are also the good alternatives and can help to fulfill the current demands. These fibers have been known to have high quality characteristics and their production can also utilize the lower grade cellulose materials like paper waste, cotton, grass etc. Better understanding of the textile fiber’s chemical and structural properties is the basic thing for the improvisation and functionalization of the textile materials.

References

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2. Tortman, E.R., Dyeing and Chemical Technology of Textile Fibers, 4^th Ed., Charles Griffin and Co., USA, 1975.

3. Shabbir, M. and Mohammad, F., Sustainable production of regenerated cellulosic fibres, in: Sustainable Fibres and Textiles, S. Muthu (Ed.), pp. 171, Woodhead Publishing, USA, 2017.

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5. Lewis, D.M., Wool Dyeing, Society of Dyers and Colorists, UK, 1992.

6. Bradbury, J.H., The structure and chemistry of keratin fibers, in: Advances in Protein Chemistry, C.B. Anfinsen Jr, J.T. Edsall, F.M. Richards (Eds.), 27, pp. 111–211, Academic Press, New York, 1973.

7. Hall, D.M., Adanur, S., Broughton Jr., R.M., Brady, P.H., Polymers and fibers, in: Wellington Sears Handbook of Industrial Textiles, 1^st Edn, S. Adanur (Ed.), pp. 37–52, CRC Press, New Holland, USA, 1995.

8. Wakelyn, P.J., Bertoniere, N.R., French, A.D., Thibodeaux, O.P., Triplett, B.A., Rousselle, M.A., Goynes Jr, W.R., Edwards, J.V., Hunter, L., McAlisten, D.D., Gamble, G.R., (Eds.), Cotton Fiber Chemistry and Technology, CRC Press, Florida, USA, 2007.

9. Basu, G., Sinha, A.K. and Chattopadhyay, S.N., Properties of jute based ternary blended bulked yarns. Man. Made. Text. India., 48, 350, 2005.

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11. Karthik, T. and Rathinamoorthy, R., Sustainable synthetic fibre production, in: Sustainable Fibres and Textiles, S. Muthu (Ed.), pp. 191–240, Woodhead Publishing, USA, 2017.

12. Kirk, R.E., Othmer, D.F., Mark, H.F., Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Wiley-Interscience, Chichester, 1965.

13. Dyer, J. and Daul, G.C., Rayon fibers, in: Handbook of Fiber Chemistry, 2^nd Edn., M. Lewin, E.M. Pearce (Eds.), pp. 738–744, Marvel Decker Inc., New York, 1998.