Cover
Preface
1 Overview of Functional Foods
1. 1.1 Overview of Functional Foods
2. 1.2 Functional Foods and their Regulatory Aspects
3. 1.3 Nanotechnologies in Functional Foods
4. 1.4 Sensory Functionalities of Foods
5. References
2 The In vivo Foundations for In vitro Testing of Functional Foods
1. 2.1 Introduction
2. 2.2 Overview of the Structure of the Gastrointestinal Tract
3. 2.3 Functions of the GIT and Associated In vitro Modeling
4. 2.4 Limitations of In vitro Modeling of the Gastrointestinal Tract
5. 2.5 Dynamic In vitro Models of Digestion
6. 2.6 Conclusions
7. References
3 In vivo Foundations of Sensory In vitro Testing Systems
1. 3.1 Introduction
2. 3.2 Taste
3. 3.3 Factors that Influence Taste Acuity
4. 3.4 Chemesthesis
5. 3.5 The Olfactory System
6. 3.6 Texture
7. 3.7 Convergence of Taste, Smell and Texture to Produce Flavor
8. 3.8 Concluding Remarks
9. References
4 In vitro Models of Host–Microbial Interactions Within the Gastrointestinal Tract
1. 4.1 Introduction: The Human Gastrointestinal Tract
2. 4.2 The Current State of In vitro Model Systems to Model Gut Ecosystems
3. 4.3 Batch Culture Systems to Model the Gut Microbial Consortium
4. 4.4 Continuous Systems to Model the Human GIT
5. 4.5 Mucus‐Immobilized Models of the Gut
6. 4.6 Models to Simulate Complex Host–Microbial Interactions
7. 4.7 Gastric–Small Intestine Model Systems
8. References
5 Macronutrient Nutritional Functionality of Carbohydrates, Proteins and Lipids
1. 5.1 Introduction
2. 5.2 Applications and Considerations
3. 5.3 Simulating Digestive Processes
4. 5.4 Interactions and Structural Considerations
5. 5.5 Post‐Digestion Analysis
6. 5.6 In vitro Models
7. 5.7 Limitation of In vitro Digestion Tests
8. 5.8 Conclusions
9. References
6 In vitro Approaches for Investigating the Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Dietary Nutrients and Bioactive Metabolites
1. 6.1 Introduction
2. 6.2 Static Models of In vitro Digestion
3. 6.3 Dynamic Models of In vitro Digestion
4. 6.4 Application of In vitro Digestion Method for Determining the Digestive Stability and Bioaccessibility of Dietary Compounds
5. 6.5 Caco‐2 Cell Model
6. 6.6 Examples of the Effects of Bioaccessible Dietary Compounds on the Functions of Absorptive Intestinal Epithelial Cells
7. 6.7 Coupling the In vitro Digestion and Caco‐2 Cell Models
8. 6.8 Co‐culture Models Using Caco‐2 Cells
9. 6.9 Conclusions
10. References
7 In vitro Models for Testing Toxicity in the Gastrointestinal Tract
1. 7.1 Introduction
2. 7.2 Advantages of In vitro Tests
3. 7.3 Limitations of Established Cell Line Models
4. 7.4 Single Cell Lines
5. 7.5 Co‐culture Cell Models
6. 7.6 3D Co‐culture Models
7. 7.7 Organs on a Chip
8. 7.8 Summary and Conclusions
9. References
8 In vitro Methods for Assessing Food Protein Allergenicity
1. 8.1 Introduction
2. 8.2 Food Sensitization, Hypersensitivity and Allergy
3. 8.3 Safety Needs and Regulatory Consideration in Detecting Allergens in Food
4. 8.4 In vitro Analytical Methods for Testing Known Allergens
5. References
9 Challenges of Linking In vitro Analysis to Flavor Perception
1. 9.1 Introduction
2. 9.2 What is “Flavor”?
3. 9.3 Overview of Flavor Analysis Techniques
4. 9.4 Further Developments in Aroma Analysis
5. 9.5 Recent Advances Developing In vitro Flavor Analysis Tools
6. 9.6 Model Mouth Systems
7. 9.7 Real Time Studies of Flavor Delivery
8. 9.8 Future Direction of In vitro Flavor Studies
9. 9.9 Summary
10. References
Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 02
1. Table 2.1 Functions of the gastrointestinal tract and their corresponding in vitro models
Chapter 05
1. Table 5.1 Description of basic in vitro digestion parameters: general procedure and specific foods (available carbohydrates, proteins and triglycerides in emulsion).
Chapter 06
1. Table 6.1 Examples of caco‐2 co‐culture models
Chapter 08
1. Table 8.1 Major food allergen groups and corresponding proteins
2. Table 8.2 Analytical methods for the detection of food allergens
3. Table 8.3 Major allergen databases and their functional features

List of Illustrations

Chapter 05
1. Figure 5.1 General protocol of three‐stage in vitro digestion for solid foods, including essential enzymes, biochemical environment, pH and duration of digestive phases.
Chapter 06
1. Figure 6.1 In vitro digestion of test foods, beverages, ingredients and compounds is designed to mimic the chemical, biochemical and mechanical characteristics for each phase of digestion. Both static and dynamic models of simulated digestion have been developed. The concentrations and activities of the various components in the simulated fluids for each phase of digestion remain constant and mechanical activity is limited to shaking in static models of digestion. In contrast, computer controlled variations in the digestive enzyme activities, pH, incubation time and peristaltic forces are modified in each compartment in dynamic models of in vitro digestion to better simulate physiological responses to the physical and chemical properties of consumed foods. The gastric and small intestinal phases of digestion are most often used to determine the stability and bioaccessibility of compounds in the upper gastrointestinal tract. The oral phase also can be included in simulated digestion, especially when the food has a high content of starch such as bread, cassava and potato. Dietary compounds that are poorly digested and absorbed in the upper gastrointestinal tract enter the large intestine where they may be transformed by the microflora into bioactive metabolites such as short chain fatty acids and phenolics. Such metabolites are generated during fermentation of dietary compounds added to cultures containing microorganisms present in either the lumen of the large intestine or freshly expelled feces.
2. Figure 6.2 Caco‐2 cell models are useful for investigating the uptake, metabolism and transport of dietary components by enterocyte‐like small intestinal epithelial cells. Cells can be grown on plastic surface of wells (panel A) to study apical uptake, metabolism and apical efflux of bioaccessible dietary compounds and minerals. Cells can also be grown and differentiated on semi‐permeable membranes in inserts placed in wells to create a three‐compartment model to investigate the uptake, metabolism and trans‐epithelial transport and secretion of dietary compounds and minerals, as well as the effects of compounds, extracts and digested foods on enterocyte‐like cellular functions (panel B). Monolayers of differentiated Caco‐2 cells in inserts may also be co‐cultured with other cells types to investigate the influence of cell‐cell interactions on the transport, metabolism and bioactivities of dietary compounds (panel C).
Chapter 07
1. Figure 7.1 Progression toward more physiologically relevant (i.e. predictive) cell‐based models.
2. Figure 7.2 Experimental intestinal cell model settings. Epithelial cells can be grown on plastic or on microporous membranes (filter inserts) in the presence of immune cells, leading to better cell polarization and differentiation due more accurate simulation of the in vivo intestinal environment (A = apical; B = basolateral). Cells can be grown in a conventional manner with apical side upwards, or alternatively, the filter with polarized cells can be inverted, so that the top of the membrane is equivalent to the basolateral side. In both conventional and inverted setting co‐cultured immune cells, substances and microorganisms can be added to apical or basolateral side, enabling functional studies described in the main text on both sides of the epithelia.
3. Figure 7.3 Basic and clinical applications of an epithelial mini‐gut. An epithelial mini‐gut is efficiently established from a single endoscopic biopsy sample. Up to ~3000 crypts can be released from a biopsy sample. An epithelial mini‐gut grows logarithmically and expands 1000‐fold within a month. Three applications of epithelial mini‐guts are as follows: (i) As an experimental tool. Genetic manipulation, gene expression analysis, live imaging, and other standard biological analyses can be employed for normal and patient‐derived epithelial mini‐guts. (ii) As a diagnostic tool. Patient‐derived epithelial mini‐guts recapitulate in vivo intestinal epithelial functions and genetic signatures. Efficient expansion of pure epithelial cells provides a high‐quality source for deep sequencing or functional assays. (iii) As a therapeutic tool. Epithelial mini‐gut transplantation may become a feasible regenerative therapy.
4. Figure 7.4 A microfluidic “Gut‐on‐a‐Chip” technology that exposes cultured cells to physiological peristalsis‐like motions and liquid flow can be used to induce human Caco‐2 cells to spontaneously undergo robust morphogenesis of three‐dimensional (3D) intestinal villi.
Chapter 08
1. Figure 8.1 Cell and immune mediated mechanisms of allergic sensitization.
2. Figure 8.2 Overview of steps for immunogenicity prediction highlighting the in silico, in vitro and in vivo evaluation methods.
Chapter 09
1. Figure 9.1 Four aldehydes with very different odor sensory properties. These descriptions can vary depending on the ability of the person to recall or associate words to scents.
2. Figure 9.2 The change in aroma quality of trans‐non‐2‐enal at increasing concentrations.
3. Figure 9.3 GCO schematic. The compounds are injected into the gas chromatograph (1), separated on the column (2) as it heats up within the GC oven, a splitter (3) then divides the flow, part enters the mass spectrometer detector (MS) to generate a chromatogram, the remainder exits through a heated transferline (4) where compounds can be inhaled and detected in the nose.
4. Figure 9.4 The production of a CHARM aromagram from the summation and scaling of individual GCO response traces.
5. Figure 9.5 SPME sampling; the needle (1) mounted on the SPME fiber holder (2) enters the sample vial, the fiber is exposed (3) and adsorbs volatile compounds from the sample (4) headspace. The fiber is then exposed in the hot injector liner (5) and the compounds pass on the GC column (6) for chromatography.
6. Figure 9.6 The sigmoidal nature of the stimulus dose–perception intensity relationship.
7. Figure 9.7 Schematic of the basic principle of the eNose.
8. Figure 9.8 Schematic diagram of APCI‐MS. 1 sampling point, 2 heated transferline, 3 corona pin, 4 sample cone.

This edition first published 2018

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Bordenave, Nicolas, 1980–, editor. | Ferruzzi, Mario G., editor. | Institute of Food Technologists.
Title: Functional foods and beverages : in vitro assessment of nutritional, sensory, and safety properties / edited by Dr. Nicolas Bordenave, Dr. Mario G. Ferruzzi.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ, USA : Wiley, 2018. | Series: IFT Press series | Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2018015499 (print) | LCCN 2018016150 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118823156 (pdf) | ISBN 9781118823200 (epub) | ISBN 9781118733295 (hardback)
Subjects: LCSH: Functional foods–Testing. | Nutrition–Evaluation. | Toxicity testing–In vitro. | BISAC: TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING / Food Science.
Classification: LCC QP144.F85 (ebook) | LCC QP144.F85 F8636 2018 (print) | DDC 613.2–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018015499

Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © 279photo Studio/Shutterstock; © 9dream studio/Shutterstock; © Vadim Ginzburg/123RF

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Advances in Dairy Ingredients (Geoffrey W. Smithers and Mary Ann Augustin)
Bioactive Proteins and Peptides as Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals (Yoshinori Mine, Eunice Li‐Chan, and Bo Jiang)
Biofilms in the Food Environment (Hans P. Blaschek, Hua H. Wang, and Meredith E. Agle)
Calorimetry in Food Processing: Analysis and Design of Food Systems (Gönül Kaletunç)
Coffee: Emerging Health Effects and Disease Prevention (YiFang Chu)
Food Carbohydrate Chemistry (Ronald E. Wrolstad)
Food Irradiation Research and Technology (Christopher H. Sommers and Xuetong Fan)
High Pressure Processing of Foods (Christopher J. Doona and Florence E. Feeherry)
Hydrocolloids in Food Processing (Thomas R. Laaman)
Improving Import Food Safety (Wayne C. Ellefson, Lorna Zach, and Darryl Sullivan)
Innovative Food Processing Technologies: Advances in Multiphysics Simulation (Kai Knoerzer, Pablo Juliano, Peter Roupas, and Cornelis Versteeg)
Microbial Safety of Fresh Produce (Xuetong Fan, Brendan A. Niemira, Christopher J. Doona, Florence E. Feeherry, and Robert B. Gravani)
Microbiology and Technology of Fermented Foods (Robert W. Hutkins)
Multivariate and Probabilistic Analyses of Sensory Science Problems (Jean‐François Meullenet, Rui Xiong, and Christopher J. Findlay)
Natural Food Flavors and Colorants (Mathew Attokaran)
Nondestructive Testing of Food Quality (Joseph Irudayaraj and Christoph Reh)
Nondigestible Carbohydrates and Digestive Health (Teresa M. Paeschke and William R. Aimutis)
Nonthermal Processing Technologies for Food (Howard Q. Zhang, Gustavo V. Barbosa‐Ćanovas, V.M. Balasubramaniam, C. Patrick Dunne, Daniel F. Farkas, and James T.C. Yuan)
Nutraceuticals, Glycemic Health and Type 2 Diabetes (Vijai K. Pasupuleti and JamesW. Anderson)
Organic Meat Production and Processing (Steven C. Ricke, Michael G. Johnson, and Corliss A. O’Bryan)
Packaging for Nonthermal Processing of Food (Jung H. Han)
Preharvest and Postharvest Food Safety: Contemporary Issues and Future Directions (Ross C. Beier, Suresh D. Pillai, and Timothy D. Phillips, Editors; Richard L. Ziprin, Associate Editor)
Regulation of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: A Global Perspective (Clare M. Hasler)
Sensory and Consumer Research in Food Product Design and Development, second edition (Howard R. Moskowitz, Jacqueline H. Beckley, and Anna V.A. Resurreccion)
Sustainability in the Food Industry (Cheryl J. Baldwin)
Thermal Processing of Foods: Control and Automation (K.P. Sandeep)
Water Activity in Foods: Fundamentals and Applications (Gustavo V. Barbosa‐Ćanovas, Anthony J. Fontana Jr., Shelly J. Schmidt, and Theodore P. Labuza)
Whey Processing, Functionality and Health Benefits (Charles I. Onwulata and Peter J. Huth)

List of Contributors

Nicolas Bordenave, PhD
Faculty of Health Sciences,
School of Nutrition Sciences,
University of Ottawa, Ottawa,
Canada

Chureeporn Chitchumroonchokchai, PhD
Human Nutrition Program,
Department of Human Sciences,
The Ohio State University,
Columbus, USA

Mark L. Failla, PhD
Human Nutrition Program,
Department of Human Sciences,
The Ohio State University,
Columbus, USA

Mario G. Ferruzzi, PhD
Department of Food,
Bioprocessing and Nutrition Science,
Plants for Human Health Institute,
North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, USA

Christopher Forsyth, PhD
Department of Internal Medicine, Rush Medical College,
Rush University,
Chicago, USA

James Hollis, PhD
Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition,
Iowa State University,
Ames, USA

Avinash Kant, PhD
PepsiCo Intl, Beaumont Park R&D,
Leicester, UK

Ali Keshavarzian, MD
Department of Internal Medicine, Rush Medical College,
Rush University,
Chicago, USA

Rachel Levantovsky, PhD
Department of Food Science and Commonwealth Honors College,
University of Massachusetts,
Amherst, USA

Rob Linforth, PhD
Food Sciences, School of Biosciences,
University of Nottingham,
Nottingham, UK

Amy D. Mackey, PhD
Abbott Nutrition,
Abbott Laboratories,
USA

Edwin K. McDonald IV, MD
Pritzker School of Medicine,
The University of Chicago,
Chicago, USA

Ossanna Nashalian, PhD
Faculty of Health Sciences,
School of Nutrition Sciences,
University of Ottawa,
Ottawa, Canada

Ezgi Özcan
Department of Food Science,
University of Massachusetts,
Amherst, USA

Robin A. Ralston, PhD
Center for Advanced Functional Foods Research and Entrepreneurship,
College of Food, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences,
The Ohio State University,
Columbus, USA

Heather Rasmussen, PhD, RD
Department of Clinical Nutrition, College of Health Sciences,
Rush University,
Chicago, USA

Steven J. Schwartz, PhD
Department of Food Science and Technology,
The Ohio State University,
Columbus, USA

David A. Sela, PhD
Department of Food Science,
Center for Microbiome Research,
University of Massachusetts,
Amherst, USA

Christopher T. Simons, PhD
Department of Food Science and Technology,
The Ohio State University,
Columbus, USA

Susan M. Tosh, PhD
Faculty of Health Sciences,
School of Nutrition Sciences,
University of Ottawa,
Ottawa, Canada

Ioannis Trantakis, PhD
Department of Health Sciences and Technology,
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich,
Zurich, Switzerland

Chibuike Udenigwe, PhD
Faculty of Health Sciences,
School of Nutrition Sciences,
University of Ottawa,
Ottawa,Canada

Amanda Wright, PhD
Human Health and Nutritional Sciences,
University of Guelph,
Guelph, Canada

Preface

Food functionality is a wide concept that encompasses nutritional/health functionality, food safety and toxicology, as well as broad aspects of visual and organoleptic properties of food. The evaluation of all these individual aspects have been widely covered in many books and review articles over the years. So, why have a book on in vitro systems for testing aspects food functionality?

As you will read in this book, in vitro techniques bridge the gap between standard analytical techniques (chemical and biochemical) and in vivo human testing, which remains the ultimate translational goal for evaluation of the functionality of food. Although well established, this domain is constantly evolving toward closer and higher throughput prediction of in vivo properties and outcomes. In vitro testing facilitates high throughput assessment of food properties in a cost‐effective manner without practical and ethical challenges of human testing. By establishing tight control of testing conditions, these approaches also allow for detailed mechanistic insights to be developed on food functionalities and therefore a better understanding of interactions between food and human physiology. Nevertheless, in vitro models, as with all model systems, have their own limitations. Research and development efforts are continuously progressing to refine these methods, their predictive power, and their applicability to diverse systems and conditions. In vitro testing of food functionality is therefore a field of its own and with this in mind, is deserving to be the main subject of its own text. The ambition of this book is to establish the current state‐of‐the‐art of in vitro models, from their physiological basis to their conception, their uses, and finally their future.

Chapter 1 reviews the concepts of functional foods and food functionalities, highlighting the necessity of evaluating such functionalities. In the next section (Chapters 2 and 3), Chapter 2 overviews the physiology of the gastrointestinal tract, presenting features that constitute the basis of in vitro models for evaluating food’s nutritional, toxicological and allergenic properties. Chapter 3 covers the physiology of sensory perception of food, taste and texture. In the final section (Chapters 4 to 9), Chapter 4 overviews the in vitro models of host–microbial interactions within the gastrointestinal tract as well as the gastrointestinal model themselves. Chapters 5 and 6 address the in vitro models for the digestion and absorption of macronutrients, micronutrients and phytonutrients. Chapters 7 and 8 address the in vitro evaluation of specific food hazards, namely toxicants and allergens. Finally, Chapter 9 presents the challenges of linking in vitro analysis of taste, aroma and flavor to their actual perception.

We hope that this book will be useful to food scientists, graduate students, professors and professionals, in academia, government research or food industry R&D, who are working hard to deliver safe products of increasingly high quality to consumers.

Nicolas Bordenave
Mario G. Ferruzzi

Functional Foods and Beverages

In vitro Assessment of Nutritional, Sensory, and Safety Properties

Titles in the IFT Press series

List of Contributors

Preface

Acknowledgements