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Cover
Title Page
List of Contributors
Preface
1 Introduction
1. 1.1 Evolution of Wireless and Cellular Communication
2. 1.2 LTE Architecture
3. 1.3 LTE Antennas
4. 1.4 LTE Applications
5. 1.5 Book Organization
6. References
Part I: LTE Femtocells
1. 2 LTE Femtocells
  1. 2.1 Introduction
  2. 2.2 Platform for Femtocell Deployment
  3. 2.3 LTE Architecture Overview
  4. 2.4 LTE Femtocell Interference Analysis
  5. 2.5 Interference Mitigation: Current State of the Art
  6. 2.6 Cognitive Femtocells: A Smart Solution to a Complex Problem
  7. 2.7 Summary
  8. References
2. 3 Interference Mitigation in Cognitive Radio‐Based LTE Femtocells
  1. 3.1 Introduction
  2. 3.2 Femtocells
  3. 3.3 Interference Mitigation in Femtocells using Cognitive Radio
  4. 3.4 Summary
3. 4 Coverage Area‐Based Power Control for Interference Management in LTE Femtocells
  1. 4.1 Introduction
  2. 4.2 Coverage Radius Based Power Control Scheme (PS)
  3. 4.3 System Model
  4. 4.4 Performance Analysis
  5. 4.5 Summary
  6. References
4. 5 Energy Management in LTE Femtocells
  1. 5.1 Introduction
  2. 5.2 Architecture of LTE Networks
  3. 5.3 Classification of ES Schemes
  4. 5.4 Energy Efficient Resource Allocation
  5. 5.5 Bandwidth Expansion Schemes
  6. 5.6 Load Balancing Schemes
  7. 5.7 Comparative Analysis
  8. 5.8 Open Research Issues
  9. 5.9 Summary
5. 6 Spectrum Sensing Mechanisms in Cognitive Radio Based LTE Femtocells
  1. 6.1 Fundamentals of Signal Processing
  2. 6.2 Spectrum Sensing Techniques
  3. 6.3 History Assisted Spectrum Sensing
  4. 6.4 Model‐ and Statistics‐Based Spectrum Sensing Classification
  5. 6.5 Challenges and Issues
  6. 6.6 Summary
  7. References
Part II: Antennas for LTE Femtocells
1. 7 Antenna Consideration for LTE Femtocells
  1. 7.1 Antenna Fundamentals
  2. 7.2 Antenna Requirements for LTE Femtocells
  3. References
2. 8 Multiband Antennas for LTE Femtocells
  1. 8.1 Fundamentals of Multiband Antennas
  2. 8.2 Types of Multiband Antennas
  3. 8.3 Multiband Antenna Design: Case Studies
  4. 8.4 Open Research Issues
  5. References
3. 9 Reconfigurable Antennas for LTE Femtocells
  1. 9.1 Fundamentals of Reconfigurable Antennas
  2. 9.2 Realization of Reconfigurable Antennas
  3. 9.3 Rectangular Patch Reconfigurable LTE Femtocell Antenna
  4. 9.4 Circular Patch Reconfigurable LTE Femtocell Antenna
  5. 9.5 Open Research Issues
  6. References
4. 10 Multimode Antennas for LTE Femtocells
  1. 10.1 Multimode Antennas: Fundamentals and Types
  2. 10.2 Design of a Compact Multimode LTE Femtocell Antenna for Handheld Devices
  3. 10.3 Design of a Multifunctional Compact Antenna for LTE Femtocells and GNSS Systems
  4. 10.4 Summary
  5. 10.5 Open Challenges and Issues
  6. References
5. 11 Human Body Effects on LTE Femtocell Antennas
  1. 11.1 Interaction of the Human Body with Antennas
  2. 11.2 Numerical Modelling of the Human Body
  3. 11.3 Evaluation of Human Body Effects on LTE Femtocell Antennas
  4. 11.4 Open Research Issues
  5. References
6. 12 The Road Ahead for LTE Femtocells
  1. 12.1 Future Prospects and Challenges
  2. References
Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 01
1. Table 1.1 Comparison of mobile technologies.
2. Table 1.2 LTE network components.
Chapter 02
1. Table 2.1 Cost of using CR in femtocells.
Chapter 03
1. Table 3.1 Classification of safe/victim UE.
2. Table 3.2 Pros and cons of cognitive interference mitigation schemes.
3. Table 3.3 Synopsis of CR enabled interference mitigation schemes.
Chapter 04
1. Table 4.1 Simulation parameters.
2. Table 4.2 Percentage drop due to change in scenario (single to multicell).
Chapter 05
1. Table 5.1 LTE network components.
2. Table 5.2 Critical analysis of existing ES schemes.
3. Table 5.3 QoS factors involved in ES schemes.
4. Table 5.4 Open research issues.
Chapter 06
1. Table 6.1 Pros and cons of standard spectrum sensing techniques.
2. Table 6.2 Spectrum sensing methods and the models implemented.
3. Table 6.3 Statistics used in different spectrum sensing methods.
4. Table 6.4 Table of acronyms.
Chapter 07
1. Table 7.1 LTE frequency bands.
Chapter 08
1. Table 8.1 Optimized design parameters for the multislot patch multiband antenna
Chapter 09
1. Table 9.1 Comparison of switching technologies.
2. Table 9.2 Optimized dimensions of the proposed rectangular patch frequency reconfigurable antenna.
3. Table 9.3 Comparison of performance metrics for the rectangular patch frequency reconfigurable LTE antenna at two operating frequencies.
4. Table 9.4 Comparison of circular patch frequency reconfigurable antenna performance at the two LTE frequency bands.
Chapter 11
1. Table 11.1 Electric properties of specific human tissues at 2.45 GHz used within the constructed homogeneous body models [39].
2. Table 11.2 Comparison of the 10 g, 1 g and whole‐body averaged SAR values at 2.45 GHz for a handset antenna using high, medium and low resolution numerical models of the human body.
3. Table 11.3 Comparison of simulated parameters of on‐body Bluetooth communication channel using high‐, medium‐ and low‐resolution human body models (with reference to high‐resolution model).
4. Table 11.4 Comparison of the 1 g averaged SAR values at different frequencies of operation for the on‐body multiband antenna.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01
1. Figure 1.1 LTE architecture.
2. Figure 1.2 Downlink resource block and sub‐frame structure in downlink LTE.
Chapter 02
1. Figure 2.1 Femtocell and interference in a two‐tiered network.
2. Figure 2.2 Cross‐tier analysis with; (a) the detriment and (b) importance of femtocells in a heterogeneous network.
3. Figure 2.3 Effect of femtocell access mode on MUEs.
4. Figure 2.4 Co‐tier interference in femtocells.
5. Figure 2.5 Varying FAP power levels and effect on MUEs.
Chapter 03
1. Figure 3.1 Femtocell deployment.
2. Figure 3.2 Femtocell scenario with co‐tier and cross‐tier interference.
3. Figure 3.3 Femtocell deployment scenarios.
4. Figure 3.4 Open access versus CSG.
5. Figure 3.5 Interference mitigation – hybrid spectrum allocation.
6. Figure 3.6 Interference mitigation – PC.
7. Figure 3.7 Interference mitigation – antenna schemes.
8. Figure 3.8 White spaces denoting availability of spectrum.
9. Figure 3.9 Cognitive interference mitigation schemes.
10. Figure 3.10 Interference mitigation on a per‐time slot basis.
11. Figure 3.11 Distributed carrier selection process – PCC and SCC.
12. Figure 3.12 Interference mitigation scenario to illustrate safe/victim UE.
13. Figure 3.13 Spectrum reuse – FAP assigns RBs of a far away MUE to FUE.
14. Figure 3.14 SCFN: Interference mitigation with main beam direction.
15. Figure 3.15 Interference mitigation through FPC.
16. Figure 3.16 CR enabled interference mitigation.
Chapter 04
1. Figure 4.1 Blind placement of a FAP and power spillage.
2. Figure 4.2 Coverage radius based PS.
3. Figure 4.3 Comparison of PS with other schemes.
4. Figure 4.4 SINR cross‐tier (single cell).
5. Figure 4.5 SINR co‐tier (single cell).
6. Figure 4.6 Downlink throughput (single cell).
7. Figure 4.7 Co‐tier SINR comparison (single versus multicell).
8. Figure 4.8 Cross‐tier SINR comparison (single versus multicell).
9. Figure 4.9 Percentage droppage in SINR (single‐ versus multicell).
10. Figure 4.10 Coverage radius bounds and effect on SINR (single‐ versus multicell).
Chapter 05
1. Figure 5.1 Architecture of LTE networks.
2. Figure 5.2 Classification of energy saving schemes.
3. Figure 5.3 Hybrid FBS and MBS based ES scheme.
4. Figure 5.4 Link adaptation scheme – LTE based downlink transmission.
5. Figure 5.5 MBSFN based frame architecture.
6. Figure 5.6 CoMP based coverage expansion.
7. Figure 5.7 OFDMA frame architecture.
8. Figure 5.8 Resource allocation through load balancing.
9. Figure 5.9 Carrier aggregation.
10. Figure 5.10 OFDMA‐based CC ES scheme.
11. Figure 5.11 Distance aware based BS communication.
12. Figure 5.12 BS coverage expansion for ES.
13. Figure 5.13 Distributed schemes: sectorization in BS.
14. Figure 5.14 State diagram for CRN based ES.
15. Figure 5.15 REHO ES scheme.
16. Figure 5.16 REHO dynamic power consumption.
17. Figure 5.17 Percentage of energy saved in each ES scheme.
Chapter 06
1. Figure 6.1 Additive Gaussian noise channel.
2. Figure 6.2 Linear filter channel with additive noise.
3. Figure 6.3 OFDM block diagram.
4. Figure 6.4 Spectrum sensing mechanisms.
5. Figure 6.5 (a) Energy detector implementation using analogue pre‐filter and square‐law device. (b) Energy detector implementation using periodogram FFT and averaging.
6. Figure 6.6 Main blocks of matched filter spectrum sensing technique.
7. Figure 6.7 Implementing pilot detection using matched filter technique.
8. Figure 6.8 Implementation of cyclostationary feature detection.
9. Figure 6.9 Implementation of a wavelet detector [34].
10. Figure 6.10 Centralized cooperative network.
11. Figure 6.11 Distributed cooperative network.
12. Figure 6.12 History assisted CR model using an analytical database [62].
13. Figure 6.13 Classification of spectrum sensing techniques based on models and statistics implemented.
Chapter 07
1. Figure 7.1 Input impedance model of an antenna.
2. Figure 7.2 Bandwidth of two antennas using S₁₁ plotted against frequency.
3. Figure 7.3 3D radiation pattern of an electrically small antenna.
4. Figure 7.4 2D radiation pattern in elevation and azimuth planes of an electrically small antenna.
5. Figure 7.5 Spherical coordinate system and antenna radiation pattern features.
6. Figure 7.6 Propagation of a plane wave.
7. Figure 7.7 Polarization states of an electromagnetic wave.
8. Figure 7.8 Multipath propagation.
9. Figure 7.9 A typical MIMO arrangement in LTE systems.
Chapter 08
1. Figure 8.1 Generation of multiple resonances for multiband antenna operation via higher order resonance techniques.
2. Figure 8.2 Multiple resonant structures for multiband antenna operation using single feed and proximity feed methods.
3. Figure 8.3 Geometry and dimensions of the multislot patch antenna for multiband operation (all units are in mm) [28].
4. Figure 8.4 Reflection coefficient response of the multislot patch antenna [28].
5. Figure 8.5 Three‐dimensional radiation patterns of the multi‐slot antenna for multiband operation at 2.1, 3.6, 4.9 and 5.7 GHz [28].
6. Figure 8.6 Simulated peak gain values of the proposed multiband slotted patch antenna [28].
7. Figure 8.7 Simulated efficiency of the proposed multiband slotted patch antenna [28].
8. Figure 8.8 Geometry and dimensions of the patch‐loop microstrip patch multiband antenna operating at GPS/4G/Wi‐Fi frequencies (all units are in mm) [30].
9. Figure 8.9 Reflection coefficient response of the patch‐loop antenna for GPS/4G/Wi‐Fi multiband operation [30].
10. Figure 8.10 Two‐dimensional radiation patterns for the patch‐loop microstrip patch antenna for multiband operation at 1.575 GHz and 2.1 GHz in XZ and YZ planes [30].
11. Figure 8.11 Two‐dimensional radiation patterns for the proposed patch‐loop antenna for multiband operation at 1.575 and 2.1 GHz in XZ and YZ planes [30].
12. Figure 8.12 Peak gain values of the patch‐loop combination antenna for GPS/4G/Wi‐Fi multiband operation [30].
13. Figure 8.13 Efficiency of the patch‐loop combination antenna for GPS/4G/Wi‐Fi multiband operation [30].
14. Figure 8.14 Surface current distribution at 1.575 GHz and 2.1 GHz for the patch‐loop multiband antenna [30].
15. Figure 8.15 Surface current distribution at 3.68 GHz and 5.37 GHz for the patch‐loop multiband antenna [30].
Chapter 09
1. Figure 9.1 Use of PIN diode to achieve switching between two frequencies through changed effective length of a simple patch antenna.
2. Figure 9.2 Use of varactor to vary the effective length of a PIFA to achieve reconfigurable antenna operation.
3. Figure 9.3 Geometry and dimensions of the rectangular patch reconfigurable LTE antenna (all units are in mm).
4. Figure 9.4 Surface current distribution of the rectangular patch reconfigurable antenna in the filled configuration at 1.575 and 2.45 GHz.
5. Figure 9.5 Surface current distribution of the rectangular patch reconfigurable antenna in the unfilled configuration at 1.575 and 2.45 GHz.
6. Figure 9.6 Reflection coefficient response of the rectangular patch reconfigurable LTE antenna operating at two frequencies.
7. Figure 9.7 Three‐dimensional radiation pattern of the rectangular patch reconfigurable antenna in unfilled configuration operating at 2.45 GHz.
8. Figure 9.8 Three‐dimensional radiation pattern of the rectangular patch reconfigurable antenna in filled configuration operating at 1.575 GHz.
9. Figure 9.9 Geometry and dimensions of the circular patch reconfigurable LTE antenna (all units are in mm) [48].
10. Figure 9.10 Surface current distribution on the circular patch reconfigurable antenna in a filled configuration at 3.6 and 5 GHz.
11. Figure 9.11 Surface current distribution on the circular patch reconfigurable antenna in an unfilled configuration at 3.6 and 5 GHz.
12. Figure 9.12 Reflection coefficient response of the circular patch reconfigurable LTE antenna operating at two frequencies.
13. Figure 9.13 Three‐dimensional radiation pattern of the circular patch reconfigurable antenna in a filled configuration operating at 3.6 GHz.
14. Figure 9.14 Three‐dimensional radiation pattern of the circular patch reconfigurable antenna in an unfilled configuration operating at 5 GHz
Chapter 10
1. Figure 10.1 Geometry of the proposed CWSGP antenna showing the (a) top view and (b) back view of the antenna.
2. Figure 10.2 Simulated axial ratio of different truncated inner patch, C.
3. Figure 10.3 Different stages of the ground plane slots in the proposed CWSGP antenna. (a) Four horizontal slots. (b) Eight horizontal slots. (c) Ten horizontal slots. (d) Ten horizontal and two vertical slots. Note: a1 = 17 mm, a2 = 21 mm, a3 = 4 mm, a4 = 1 mm, b1 = 24 mm, b2 = 14 mm, a5 = 6.5 mm, d1 = d4 = 10.5 mm, d2 = 5.5 mm and d4 = 9.5 mm, m = 3.1 mm and l = 23.5 mm
4. Figure 10.4 Simulated reflection coefficients and axial ratios of different stages of the grounded slots in the proposed CWSGP antenna. (a) Reflection coefficients and (b) axial ratios.
5. Figure 10.5 Fabricated prototyped CWSGP antenna: (a) top view and (b) back view.
6. Figure 10.6 Measured and simulated reflection coefficient and axial ratio of the proposed CWSGP antenna: (a) measured and simulated reflection coefficient and [40] (b) simulated axial ratio.
7. Figure 10.7 Measured and simulated radiation pattern at 2.6 GHz showing the RHCP and LHCP of the proposed CWSGP antenna.
8. Figure 10.8 Measured and simulated radiation pattern at 2.3 GHz showing the RHCP and LHCP of the proposed CWSGP antenna.
9. Figure 10.9 Simulated current distribution of the proposed CWSGP antenna at 2.6 GHz.
10. Figure 10.10 Simulated current distribution of the proposed CWSGP antenna at 2.3 GHz.
11. Figure 10.11 Geometry of the proposed stacked patch triple‐band dual‐polarized antenna: (a) configuration of the antenna and (b) top view of the antenna [41].
12. Figure 10.12 Variation of the antenna parameters for different values of breadth g of I‐slot (lower patch): (a) reflection coefficient and (b) AR [41].
13. Figure 10.13 Variation of the antenna parameters for different values of length, c (middle patch I‐slot): (a) reflection coefficient and (b) AR [41].
14. Figure 10.14 Variation of the antenna parameters for different values of breadth g of I‐slot (lower patch): (a) reflection coefficient and (b) AR [41].
15. Figure 10.15 Fabricated prototype of the stacked patch triple‐band dual‐polarized antenna: (a) top view and (b) bottom view [41].
16. Figure 10.16 Measured and simulated reflection coefficient and AR of the stacked patch triple‐band, dual‐polarized antenna: (a) measured and simulated reflection coefficient and (b) measured and simulated AR [41].
17. Figure 10.17 Measured and simulated RHCP and LHCP radiation patterns in XZ‐plane of the stacked patch triple‐band, dual‐polarized antenna at 1.227 GHz [41].
18. Figure 10.18 Measured and simulated RHCP and LHCP radiation patterns in XZ‐plane of the stacked patch triple‐band, dual‐polarized antenna at 1.575 GHz [41].
19. Figure 10.19 Linear polarized radiation pattern at 1.800 GHz showing both the measured and simulated co and cross polarization at XZ‐plane [41].
20. Figure 10.20 3D radiation pattern showing the RHCP and LHCP of the stacked patch triple‐band, dual‐polarized antenna at 1.227 GHz [41].
21. Figure 10.21 3D radiation pattern showing the RHCP and LHCP of the stacked patch triple‐band, dual‐polarized antenna at 1.575 GHz [41].
22. Figure 10.22 3D radiation pattern showing the THETA and PHI of the stacked patch triple‐band, dual‐polarized antenna at 1.800 GHz [41].
23. Figure 10.23 Simulated Cartesian plots of the stacked patch triple‐band, dual‐polarized antenna showing a wider beamwidth at the upper hemisphere for 1.227 GHz and 1.575 GHz at = 0°, 45° and 90° [41].
Chapter 11
1. Figure 11.1 Structure of realistic high‐resolution, simplified medium‐resolution and basic low‐resolution numerical models of the human body with on‐body positioned headset and handset antennas (all lengths are in mm) [40].
2. Figure 11.2 Simulation set‐up (showing on‐body test configurations with headset and handset antenna positions, location of cross‐section plane and definition of curves for the observation of electric field distribution), antenna prototypes and measurement set‐up in an anechoic chamber (all lengths are in mm) [40].
3. Figure 11.3 Comparison of simulated and measured average path gains for Bluetooth headset and handset antennas at 2.45 GHz [40].
4. Figure 11.4 Comparison of simulated 2D radiation patterns of headset meander line monopole antenna at 2.45 GHz using different human body models [40].
5. Figure 11.5 Comparison of simulated 2D radiation patterns of a handset PIFA antenna at 2.45 GHz using different human body models [40].
6. Figure 11.6 Comparison of normalized electric field distributions on the three human body models for handset LTE antenna on the cross section plane through a headset LTE antenna [40].
7. Figure 11.7 Electric field strength on the curves between the handset and the headset antennas in front of the three body models, corresponding to Figure 11.2(a) [40].
8. Figure 11.8 Comparison of maximum SAR distributions on the three human body models for handset antenna [40].
9. Figure 11.9 Geometry and dimensions of the slot‐ring microstrip patch multiband antenna operating at GPS/4G/Wi‐Fi frequencies (all units are in mm [46, 47]).
10. Figure 11.10 Structure of a realistic high‐resolution numerical model of the human body (all lengths are in mm) [47].
11. Figure 11.11 Reflection coefficient response of the multiband microstrip patch antenna with and without human body presence [47].
12. Figure 11.12 On‐body placement of the antenna at different body locations [47].
13. Figure 11.13 Reflection coefficient response of the multiband microstrip patch antenna while placed at different on‐body positions.
14. Figure 11.14 Antenna placement at different separations from the human body.
15. Figure 11.15 Reflection coefficient response of the multiband microstrip patch antenna with varying separations between the human body and the antenna.
16. Figure 11.16 Path gain response of the multiband microstrip patch antenna in different on‐body channels.
17. Figure 11.17 Considered scenarios for evaluation of the antenna performance in on‐off body and body‐body channels.
18. Figure 11.18 Path gain performance of the multiband microstrip patch antenna in on‐off body LOS and NLOS configurations [47].
19. Figure 11.19 Path gain performance of the multiband microstrip patch LTE antenna in body‐to‐body LOS and NLOS configurations.

This edition first published 2018
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Ur‐Rehman, Masood, editor. | Safdar, Ghazanfar Ali, 1973– editor.
Title: LTE communications and networks : femtocells and antenna design challenges / edited by Masood Ur Rehman, Ghazanfar Ali Safdar.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2018. | Identifiers: LCCN 2017056167 (print) | LCCN 2018006050 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119385240 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119385257 (epub) | ISBN 9781119385226 (cloth)
Subjects: LCSH: Long‐Term Evolution (Telecommunications) | Femtocells. | Antennas (Electronics)–Design and construction.
Classification: LCC TK5103.48325 (ebook) | LCC TK5103.48325 .L7346 2018 (print) | DDC 621.3845/6–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017056167

LTE Communications and Networks

Femtocells and Antenna Design Challenges

List of Contributors

Preface