Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Part I: Nanotechnology for Natural Resources

Chapter 1: Application of Nanotechnology in Water Treatment, Wastewater Treatment and Other Domains of Environmental Engineering Science –A Broad Scientific Perspective and Critical Review
1. 1.1 Introduction
2. 1.2 The Vision of the Study
3. 1.3 The Need and the Rationale of the Study
4. 1.4 The Scope of the Study
5. 1.5 Environmental Sustainability, the Vision to Move Forward and the Immense Challenges
6. 1.6 Water and Wastewater Treatment – The Scientific Doctrine and Immense Scientific Cognizance
7. 1.7 The Scientific Vision of Membrane Science
8. 1.8 Recent Scientific Endeavour in the Field of Membrane Separation Processes
9. 1.9 Recent Scientific Pursuit in the Field of Application of Nanotechnology in Water Treatment
10. 1.10 Scientific Motivation and Objectives in Application of Nanotechnology in Wastewater Treatment
11. 1.11 Desalination and the Future of Human Society
12. 1.12 NanofiltrationTechnologies, the Future of Reverse Osmosis and the Scientific Vision of Global Water Issues
13. 1.13 Recent Advances in Membrane Science and Technology in Seawater Desalination
14. 1.14 Recent Scientific Endeavour in the Field of Nanofiltration, Reverse Osmosis, Forward Osmosis and Other Branches of Membrane Science
15. 1.15 Current and Potential Applications for Water and Wastewater Treatment
16. 1.16 Water Treatment Membrane Technologies
17. 1.17 Non-Traditional Advanced Oxidation Techniques and its Wide Vision
18. 1.18 Scientific Cognizance, Scientific Vision and the Future Avenues of Nanotechnology
19. 1.19 Advanced Oxidation Processes, Non-Traditional Environmental Engineering Techniques and its Vision for the Future
20. 1.20 Environmental Sustainability, the Futuristic Technologies and the Wide Vision of Nanotechnology
21. 1.21 Integrated Water Quality Management System and Global Water Issues
22. 1.22 Integrated Groundwater Quality Management System and the Vision for the Future
23. 1.23 Membrane Science and Wastewater Reclamation
24. 1.24 Future of Groundwater Heavy Metal Remediation and Application of Nanotechnology
25. 1.25 Future Research and Development Initiatives in the Field of Nanotechnology Applications in Wastewater Treatment
26. 1.26 Futuristic Vision, the World of Scientific Validation and the Scientific Avenues for the Future
27. 1.27 Future Research and Development Needs
28. 1.28 Conclusions
29. References
Chapter 2: Nanotechnology Solutions for Public Water Challenges
1. 2.1 Introduction
2. 2.2 Application of Nanotechnology in Water and Wastewater Treatment
3. 2.3 Effects of Nanotechnology
4. 2.4 Conclusions
5. Acknowledgements
6. References
Chapter 3: Nanotechnology: An Emerging Field for Sustainable Water Resources
1. 3.1 Introduction
2. 3.2 Classification of Nanomaterials for Wastewater Treatment
3. 3.3 Synthesis of Nanomaterials
4. 3.4 Application of Nanotechnology in Wastewater Treatment
5. 3.5 Risk of Nanotechnology
6. 3.6 Conclusions
7. References
Chapter 4: Removal of Hazardous Contaminants from Water or Wastewater Using Polymer Nanocomposites Materials
1. 4.1 Introduction
2. 4.2 Adsorption of Heavy Metals
3. 4.3 Adsorption of Dyes
4. 4.4 Adsorption of Antibiotics and Other Organic Contaminants
5. 4.5 Processing of Polymer-Based Nanocomposites as Adsorbents
6. 4.6 Clay–Polymer Nanocomposites
7. 4.7 Carbon Nanotube Polymer Nanocomposites
8. 4.8 Magnetic Polymer Nanocomposites
9. 4.9 Adsorption Equilibrium Studies
10. 4.10 Adsorption Kinetic Studies
11. 4.11 Summary
12. Acknowledgment
13. References
Chapter 5: Sustainable Nanocarbons as Potential Sensor for Safe Water
1. 5.1 Introduction
2. 5.2 Recent Advancement in Sustainable Nanocarbons
3. 5.3 Sustainable Nanocarbons for Safe Water
4. 5.4 Concluding Remarks and Future Trend
5. Acknowledgment
6. References

Part 2: Nanosensors as Tools for Water Resources

Chapter 6: Nanosensors as Tools for Water Resources
1. 6.1 Introduction
2. 6.2 Contaminant Monitoring Procedures
3. 6.3 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
4. References
Chapter 7: Emerging Nanosensing Strategies for Heavy Metal Detection
1. 7.1 Introduction
2. 7.2 Recent Trends in Nanosensing Strategies: An Overview
3. 7.3 Microfluidic Nanotechnology: Emerging Platform for Sensing
4. 7.4 Summary and Outlook
5. Acknowledgement
6. References
Chapter 8: Capture of Water Contaminants by a New Generation of Sorbents Based on Graphene and Related Materials
1. 8.1 Introduction
2. 8.2 Characterization of Physicochemical, Mechanical, and Magnetic Properties of Graphene-Based Materials
3. 8.3 Removal of Inorganic and Water-Soluble Organic Contaminants with Graphene-Based Sorbents
4. 8.4 Cleanup of Oil Spills and Other Water-Insoluble Organic Contaminants
5. 8.5 Summary and Outlook
6. Acknowledgment
7. References
Chapter 9: Design and Analysis of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials for Removal of Environmental Contaminants
1. 9.1 Introduction
2. 9.2 Methodology
3. 9.3 Substitutionally Doped Graphene Bilayer
4. 9.4 Gas Adsorption Effect
5. 9.5 Conclusions
6. Acknowledgment
7. References
Chapter 10: Nanosensors: From Chemical to Green Synthesis for Wastewater Remediation
1. 10.1 Introduction
2. 10.2 Synthesis of Nanomaterials
3. 10.3 Biological Methods
4. 10.4 Application of Nanoparticles
5. 10.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects
6. Acknowledgment
7. References
Chapter 11: As-Prepared Carbon Nanotubes for Water Purification: Pollutant Removal and Magnetic Separation
1. 11.1 Introduction
2. 11.2 Experimental Method
3. 11.3 Removal of Dye from Aqueous Solution by NaClO-Modified Magnetic Carbon Nanotube
4. 11.4 Removal of Toluene, Ethylbenzene, and Xylene from Aqueous Solution by KOH-Activated Magnetic Carbon Nanotube
5. 11.5 Removal of Organic Pollutants from Aqueous Solution by Chitason-Grafted Magnetic Carbon Nanotube
6. 11.6 Summary and Outlook
7. Reference
Chapter 12: Nanoadsorbents: An Approach Towards Wastewater Treatment
1. 12.1 Introduction
2. 12.2 Classification of Nanomaterials as Nanoadsorbents
3. 12.3 Importance of Nanomaterials in the Preconcentration Process
4. 12.4 Properties and Mechanisms of Nanomaterials as Adsorbents
5. 12.5 Nanoparticles for Water and Wastewater Remediation
6. 12.6 Applications in Aqueous Media
7. 12.7 Conclusions
8. 12.8 Future Scenario
9. Acknowledgment
10. References

Part 3: Nano-Separation Techniques for Water Resources

Chapter 13: Hybrid Clay Mineral for Anionic Dye Removal and Textile Effluent Treatment
1. 13.1 Introduction
2. 13.2 Experimental
3. 13.3 Result and Discussion
4. 13.4 Conclusions
5. References
Chapter 14: Nano-Separation Techniques for Water Resources
1. 14.1 Current Progress in Nanotechnologies for Water Resources and Wastewater Treatment Processes
2. 14.2 Nanomaterials in Nano-Separation Techniques for Water Treatment Process
3. 14.3 Biochar-Based Nanocomposites for the Purification of Water Resources and Wastewater
4. 14.4 Conclusions
5. References
Chapter 15: Recent Advances in Nanofiltration Membrane Techniques for Separation of Toxic Metals from Wastewater
1. 15.1 Introduction
2. 15.2 Membrane Technology
3. 15.3 Nanofiltration Membrane for Metal Removal/Rejection
4. 15.4 Summary and Outlook
5. Acknowledgment
6. References
Chapter 16: Bacterial Cellulose Nanofibers for Efficient Removal of Hg²⁺ from Aqueous Solutions
1. 16.1 Introduction
2. 16.2 Experimental Method
3. 16.3 Results and Discussion
4. 16.4 Conclusions
5. References

Part 4: Sustainable Future with Nanotechnology

Chapter 17: Nanotechnology Based Separation Systems for Sustainable Water Resources
1. 17.1 Introduction and Background
2. 17.2 Nanotechnology in Water Treatment
3. 17.3 Nanofiltration—A Membranous Technique
4. 17.4 Nanoadsorbents
5. 17.5 Nanoparticles
6. 17.6 Recent Researches in Nanoseparation Techniques of Wastewater
7. 17.7 Conclusions
8. References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1: Characteristics of membrane processes [1].

Chapter 3

Table 3.1: Different types of nanomaterials utilised for the remediation of environment.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1: Impact of heavy metal poisoning to human health.
Table 4.2: Physical characteristics and chemical structure of several synthetic dyes.
Table 4.3: Classification of antibiotics.
Table 4.4: Clay–polymer nanocomposites as the adsorbents.
Table 4.5: Summary of commonly used adsorption isotherm equations.
Table 4.6: Langmuir parameters for adsorption of hazardous substances onto polymer-based nanocomposites.
Table 4.7: The temperature dependent parameters of q_max and K_L of Langmuir equation for several adsorption systems.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1: Other applications of sensors for monitoring pollutants in water.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1: Adsorption of heavy metal and nonmetal ions using graphene-related materials.
Table 8.2: Adsorption of dyes and pharmaceuticals on graphene-related materials.
Table 8.3: Removal of oils and other organic contaminants by graphene-based materials.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1: Formation energies (E_f) of B(N)-doped monolayer and bilayer graphenes with AA, AB1, and AB2 stacking patterns. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [61], copyright 2017 the Springer.
Table 9.2: Formation energy differences between bilayer graphenes with AA and AB1 (AB2) stacking patterns.Reprinted with permission from Ref. [43], copyright 2015 the Elsevier.
Table 9.3: Adsorption energies (E_a) and distances (d) between gas molecules and B(N)-doped bilayer graphene. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [44], copyright 2016 the Elsevier.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1: The synthesis of nanoparticles by various microorganism.
Table 10.2: The synthesis of nanoparticles by various plants parts.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1: Pore structures and oxygen content of APCNTs and MAPCNTs.
Table 11.2: Langmuir, Freundlich, and D–R isotherms parameters of MAPCNTs adsorbents.
Table 11.3: Surface chemical properties of APCNTs and APCNTs-KOH from O1s deconvolutions.
Table 11.4: Fitting isotherm parameters for the adsorption of TEX on APCNTs and APCNTs-KOH using the Langmuir, Freundlich, and D–R models
Table 11.5: Thermodynamic parameters on TEX adsorption by APCNTs-KOH at pH 6.
Table 11.6: Kinetics parameters of the pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, and intraparticle diffusion model for TEX on APCNTs-KOH (Temperature: 293K and pH: 6).
Table 11.7: Physical and chemical properties of CNTs/C@Fe/CS.
Table 11.8: The parameters derived from the Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, and D–R models.
Table 11.9: Maximum adsorption capacities of MB, MO, TC, and ROX on other adsorbents.
Table 11.10: Kinetic parameters of pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, and intraparticle diffusion model.
Table 11.11: Thermodynamic parameters of MB, MO, TC, and ROX adsorption on CNTs/C@Fe/CS.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1: Chemical composition (w%).
Table 13.1: Most important properties and chemical composition of purified sample [Na-bent].
Table 13.2: Structural proprieties of Arp and Arb.
Table 13.3: PZC of Arp determined by mass titration for three ionic strengths.
Table 13.4: Cation exchange capacities of Arp and Arb.
Table 13.5: Atomic percentage of the major elements contained in Arp.
Table 13.6: Basal spacing of H_i-bent prepared at different concentrations of hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide in aqueous solution. (i = 1, 2, and 3).
Table 13.7: PCN data estimated by potentiometric titration and mass titration.
Table 13.8: Textural parameters and CEC studied of Na-bent and Hi-bent.
Table 13.9: Characterization of RBII.
Table 13.10: Various experimental conditions.
Table 13.11: kinetics parameters for RBII-adsorption onto H₃-bent hybrid material.
Table 13.12: Main characteristics of the additives used by the textile finishing industry (A).
Table 13.13: Composition of the fine clay fractions (<2um) I and II and their physicochemical properties.
Table 13.14: Composition of industrial effluents A and B before and after treatment with I and II clays

Chapter 15

Table 15.1: The maximum recommended concentration for drinking water regulated by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and World Health Organization (WHO).
Table 15.2: Rejection/removal capacity and other parameters of Nanofiltration membrane for heavy metal ions.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1: Comparison of the adsorption capacities of various nanofiber adsorbents for the removal of Hg²⁺ ions.
Table 16.2: Hg adsorption capacity of various adsorbents obtained from Langmuir model.

Chapter 17

Table 17.1: Water from various sources and its pollutants [3b].
Table 17.2: Selected adsorbents used for dyes removal from polluted water.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1: Schematic representation of photocatalysis occurring on the surface of the nanostructured metal oxide semiconductor photocatalyst.
Figure 2.2: Membrane-based filtration techniques.
Figure 2.3: Schematic representation of water softening by nanofiltration process.

Chapter 3

Scheme 3.1: Classification of nanomaterials based on the technique used for water remediation.
Scheme 3.2: Synthetic methodologies involved in green synthesis of nanoparticles.
Figure 3.1: Schematic diagram of water remediation by zero-valent iron.
Figure 3.2: The mechanism of the photocatalytic degradation of pollutants using metal oxide nanocomposites.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1: Effect of the value of K_L on the amount adsorbed onto surface of adsorbent.
Figure 4.2: Influence of parameter n on the behavior of Freundlich isotherm.
Figure 4.3: Theoretical plots of DR equation as the function of βE_o.
Figure 4.4: Characteristic curve of DR equation.
Figure 4.5: The behavior of parameter n in Sips equation.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1: A schematic illustration for the synthetic routes of nanocarbons.
Figure 5.2: Schematic diagram of the main steps in producing nanocarbons from waste rubber tires [38]. (Reprinted with permission.)
Figure 5.3: (a) Diagram of the experimental apparatus for the growth of graphene from food, insects, or waste in a tube furnace. On the left, the Cu foil with the carbon source contained in a quartz boat is placed at the hot zone of a tube furnace. The growth is performed at 1050 °C under low pressure with a H₂/Ar gas flow. On the right is a cross view that represents the formation of pristine graphene on the backside of the Cu substrate. (b) Growth of graphene from a cockroach leg. (1) One roach leg on top of the Cu foil. (2) Roach leg under vacuum. (3) Residue from the roach leg after annealing at 1050 °C for 15 min. The pristine graphene grew on the bottom side of the Cu film. TEM images of the cookie-derived graphene. (c) Suspended graphene film on a 1 µm diameter hole, and (d) the edge of monolayer graphene. Raman spectra of monolayer graphene from six different carbon sources. The Raman spectra graphene were derived from (e) girl Scout cookie, (f) grass, (g) plastic(polystyrene petri dish), (h) chocolate, (i) dog feces, and (j) cockroach leg. There was only a trace D peak in some of the spectra, and the 2D to G peak intensity ratio were ~4, indicating monolayer graphene [46]. (Reprinted with permission.)
Figure 5.4: (a) Fluorescence spectra of wsGNS before (top) and after (bottom) addition of Cr(VI) ions (100 µL, 1 × 10⁻² M). The right inset shows the fluorescence image of wsGNS before addition of Cr(VI) ions, and the left inset shows the fluorescence image of wsGNS after the addition of Cr(VI) ions. (b) Fluorescence emission responses of wsGNS with increasing concentrations of Cr(VI). (c) Curve of the fluorescence quenching values (I_o/I) versus Cr(VI) concentration. (d) Histogram showing the changes in fluorescence emission of wsGNS at 460 nm upon addition of different heavy metal ions [51]. (Reprinted with permission.)
Figure 5.5: (a) The suggested on–off–on mechanism of PL sensing for Ag(I) ions by Am-GQDs. HRTEM images of (b) Am-GQDs, (c) Am-GQD@Ag, (d) AmGQD-Ag-Cys, and (e) SAED pattern of Am-GQD@Ag [43]. (Reprinted with permission.)
Figure 5.6: Schematic representation of the sensing of Al(III) with wsCNOs-based fluorescent probe [56]. (Reprinted with permission.)
Figure 5.7: Systematic PL intensity recovery after quenching with Fe(III) for different F^- concentrations: (a) PL intensity data, (b) comparison of PL intensity in percentage. (c) CDs in agarose gel bead, (d) CDs + Fe(III) in agarose gel bead, (e) CDs + Fe(III) + F⁻ in agarose gel bead under ambient light. (f) CDs in agarose gel bead, (g) CDs + Fe(III) in agarose gel bead, (h) CDs + Fe(III) + F^- in agarose gel bead under 365 nm excitation [23]. (Reprinted with permission.)
Figure 5.8: A cost-effective, environmentally friendly, pollution-control, and high-purity AC production from banana stem. (a) Banana tree. (b) Banana stems. (c) Banana stem powder. (d) HAC powder. (e) BET surface area study of HAC. (f) SEM image of porous HAC. (g) The proposed mechanism of nitrite sensor in water samples. (h) DPV catalytic behavior of nitrite oxidation [92]. (Reprinted with permission.)
Figure 5.9: (a) Preparation of N-doped carbon quantum dots (N-CQDs) solution. (b) PL spectra of N-CQDs with different I⁻ concentrations (inset, dependence of the relative PL peak intensity on I⁻ concentration within the range of 0–10 mM). (c) Plot of the relative PL peak intensity versus I⁻ concentration from 0 to 2.0 mM. (d) Interference of common anions with relative PL peak intensities at 1.0 mM I⁻ and 100 mM interference anion. The PL peak intensity of the blank equals I_g. (e) Relative error caused by different interference anions [93]. (Reprinted with permission.)
Figure 5.10: (a) Schematic showing the ECL detection of PCP with carbon QDs inS₂O₈^2– solution. (b) Consumption of excited C⁻ by PCP lead to quenching [102]. (Reprinted with permission.)

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1: Measurement system with fabricated lab chip: (a) experimental setup for measurement of cadmium and (b) combined micro-electrode and micro-channels picture of the disposable heavy metal chip sensor [48].

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1: 3D schematic illustration of the optical reader integrated on a smartphone (From Ref. [18], reproduced with the permission from American Chemical Society, Copyright 2014, available under the terms of the ACS Editors’ Choice License).
Figure 7.2: (a) Schematic of dual-channel sensor array based on DNA-Au nanoparticle conjugate. (b) Photograph of the colorimetric assay response and color map corresponding to metal ions. (From Ref. [20], reproduced with permission from Elsevier.)
Figure 7.3: Schematic of Pt²⁺ ion detection by Pt–Base pair coordination to the aptamer. (From Ref. [22], reproduced with permission from American Chemical Society.)
Figure 7.4: UV-Vis absorption spectra of Au nanoparticle-aptamer conjugate and linear calibration plot against 670 and 525 nm. The inset shows photograph of color change induced. (From Ref. 23, reproduced with permission from Elsevier.)
Figure 7.5: Schematic illustration of fluorescent Ag nanocluster-based ssDNA sensing mechanism for the determination of Hg²⁺ ions. (From Ref. [28], reproduced with permission from American Chemical Society.)
Figure 7.6: Schematic of ssDNA-Cu nanoparticle sensing for Pb²⁺ ions. Presence of analyte leading to quenching of fluorescence up on excitation of 340 nm. (From Ref. [33], reproduced with the permission from Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Figure 7.7: 3D schematic of reduced graphene oxide–FET Hg²⁺ sensor. (From Ref. [43], reproduced with the permission from American Chemical Society.)
Figure 7.8: Working of Pt nanoparticles-based DNAzyme for Pb²⁺ detection on a SiO₂ substrate. (From Ref. [52], reproduced with permission from Elsevier.)
Figure 7.9: Schematics of interference synthesis and sensing for the detection of analytes.
Figure 7.10: Schematic illustration for power-free Hg²⁺ microfluidic sensor. (From Ref. [55], reproduced with the permission from Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Figure 7.11: Paper-based microfluidic pads consisting of loading zone at center and 8 testing zone for the detection of Cu²⁺ ions. (From Ref. [61], reproduced with the permission from Elsevier.)
Figure 7.12: Comparison of linear fit between ICP-OES and paper microfluidic pads. (From Ref. [62].)
Figure 7.13: Schematic of paper microfluidic pads with integrated smartphone. (From Ref. [64], reproduced with the permission of American Chemical Society.)
Figure 7.14: Calibration plots for Pb²⁺ detection by electrochemical-based paper microfluidic pads. (From Ref. [67], reproduced with permission from Royal Society of Chemistry.)

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1: Schematic illustration of adsorption of Pb(II) ions onto graphene oxide (GO). Reprinted from Ref. [38]; copyright (2017), with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 8.2: Schematic model for the adsorption of the anionic azo-dyes acid orange 8 (AO8) and direct red 23 (DR23) onto GO: (a) Electrostatic interaction between the protonated surface oxygen groups of GO and the anionic dyes; (b) H-bonding and π-π stacking interactions. Reprinted from Ref. [27]; copyright (2017), with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 8.3: Effect of the GO content and drying method on morphological—textural characteristics and dye adsorptive behavior of GO/sodium alginate beads. SEM images of the beads obtained with 0.05 wt% GO by ethanol-drying (a) and lyophilization (b), and of the beads obtained with 0.25 wt% GO by ethanol-drying (c) and lyophilization (d). N₂ (-196°C) adsorption isotherms for the GO/alginate beads with the lowest (0.05 wt%) and highest (0.25 wt%) GO contents obtained by ethanol-drying and lyophilization (e). Methylene blue (MB) adsorption onto the alginate beads obtained by ethanol drying and lyophilization without GO and with increasing GO content (f).
Figure 8.4: Optical photographs of oil sorption by nanoporous graphene: (a) before and (b) after addition of nanoporous graphene. Reprinted from Ref. [85]; copyright (2017), with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 8.5: Schematic illustration of the preparation of thiolated graphene-based superhydrophobic polyurethane sponge. Reprinted from Ref. [86]; copyright (2017), with permission from Elsevier.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1: Illustrations of three types of boron and nitrogen-doped bilayer graphenes. One carbon atom at the upper layer is replaced by boron and nitrogen atoms. The open circles denote the substitution sites with boron and nitrogen atoms. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [43], copyright 2015 the Elsevier.
Figure 9 2: Energy band structures of bilayer graphenes with (a) pristine AA, (b) B-doped AA, (c) N-doped AA, (d) pristine AB, (e) B-doped AB1, (f) N-doped AB1, (g) B-doped AB2, and (h) N-doped AB2 stacking patterns. The Fermi energy is set to be zero. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [43], copyright 2015 the Elsevier.
Figure 9 3: Work functions (WFs) of B- and N-doped bilayer graphenes with AA, AB1, and AB2 stacking patterns. The two horizontal lines denote the pristine bilayer graphenes with AA and AB stacking patterns. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [43], copyright 2015 the Elsevier.
Figure 9.4: Simulated STM images of doped upper layers of (a) AA, (b) AB1, and (c) AB2-stacked bilayer graphenes doped with B atom (upper panel) and N atom (lower panel). The STM images for B-doped and N-doped cases are shown at the applied bias voltages of +0.5 eV and –0.5 eV, respectively. The arrows denote the dopant sites of the upper layer. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [61], copyright 2017 the Springer.
Figure 9.5: Simulated STM images of (a) AA, (b) AB1, and (c) AB2-stacked bilayer graphenes doped into the lower layers with B atom (upper panel) and N atom (lower panel). The STM images for B-doped and N-doped cases are shown at the applied bias voltages of +0.5 eV and –0.5 eV, respectively. The arrows denote the dopant sites of the lower layers. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [61], copyright 2017 the Springer.
Figure 9.6: Side views of optimized atomic configurations of (a) NO and (b) NO₂ molecules on B-doped bilayer graphene. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [44], copyright 2016 the Elsevier.
Figure 9.7: (a) Energy-band structure and (b) isosurface of electron density of B-doped bilayer graphene. The Fermi energy is set to be zero. Isosurface values of the electron density is set to 0.02 electron/Å³. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [44], copyright 2016 the Elsevier.
Figure 9.8: (a) Energy-band structure and isosurfaces of squared wavefunctions of three states below (b) and above (c–d) the Fermi energy at the Γ point in the B-doped bilayer graphene with adsorbed NO molecule. The Fermi energy is set to be zero. Isosurface value of the electron density is set to 0.02 electron/Å³. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [44], copyright 2016 the Elsevier.
Figure 9.9: (a) Energy-band structure and isosurfaces of squared wavefunctions of three states below (b) and above (c) the Fermi energy at the Γ point in the B-doped bilayer graphene with adsorbed NO₂ molecule. The Fermi energy is set to be zero. Isosurface value of the electron density is set to 0.02 electron/Å³. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [44], copyright 2016 the Elsevier.
Figure 9.10: Spatial distributions of total charge densities for (a) NO molecule and (b) NO₂ molecule adsorbed on B-doped bilayer graphene. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [44], copyright 2016 the Elsevier.
Figure 9.11: Isosurfaces of total charge density difference for (a) NO molecule and (b) NO₂ molecule adsorbed on B-doped bilayer graphene. Isosurface values of the electron density is set to +0.02 (dark green) electron/Å³ and –0.02 (sky blue) electron/Å³. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [44], copyright 2016 the Elsevier.
Figure 9.12: Work functions (WFs) of doped bilayer graphenes with and without NO and NO₂ molecules. The horizontal line denotes the pristine AB-stacked bilayer graphene. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [44], copyright 2016 the Elsevier.
Figure 9.13: Simulated STM images of B-doped bilayer graphenes (a) without adsorbates, (b) with NO molecule and (c) with NO₂ molecule. The STM images are generated at the bias voltage of +0.5 eV. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [44], copyright 2016 the Elsevier.

Chapter 11

Scheme 11.1: Synthesis of the magnetic CNT composites.
Figure 11.1: HRTEM images of MAPCNTs (a, b) and iron particles embedded in graphitic shells (c, d).
Figure 11.2: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectrum (a) and room-temperature magnetization curve (b) of MAPCNTs.
Figure 11.3: XRD patterns of APCNTs and MAPCNTs.
Figure 11.4: Raman spectra of APCNTs and MAPCNTs.
Figure 11.5: The optical images of dispersion properties of the APCNTs and MAPCNTs in water with a concentration of 0.5 mg mL⁻¹ after several days storage.
Figure 11.6: Comparison of adsorption capacity of APCNTs and MAPCNTs (initial concentration: 28.8 mg/L (rhodamine B), 44.8 mg/L (congo red), 79.0 mg/L (malachite green), 96.4 mg/L (methylene blue), 103.2 mg/L (neutral red)).
Figure 11.7: Photographs of MAPCNTs adsorption behavior and magnetic separation (with 10 mg/L initial concentration of dye solutions).
Figure 11.8: Equilibrium adsorption isotherms of dyes on MAPCNTs.
Figure 11.9: (a) Langmuir, (b) Freundlich, (c) D–R isotherms for dye adsorption onto MAPCNTs.
Figure 11.10: Typical TEM images of (a1) APCNTs, (a2) APCNTs-KOH, and XRD (b), TG (c), and the pore distribution (d) of APCNTs and APCNTs-KOH.
Figure 11.11: The O1s deconvolution of APCNTs (a) and APCNTs-KOH (b), magnetization curves (e, f) of APCNTs and APCNTs-KOH.
Figure 11.12: Magnetic separation to adsorption of TEX on APCNTs (a, b) and APCNTs-KOH (c, d) at pH 6.
Figure 11.13: Adsorption isotherms of TEX on APCNTs and APCNTs-KOH at pH 6; the solid lines represent Langmuir model; the dotted lines represent Freundlich model.
Figure 11.14: Fit of D–R to adsorption of TEX on APCNTs (a) and APCNTs-KOH (b–f) at pH 6.
Figure 11.15: Adsorption isotherms of TEX on APCNTs-KOH at different temperatures at pH 6; the solid lines represent Langmuir model; the dotted lines represent Freundlich model.
Figure 11.16: Plot of versus to estimate thermodynamic parameters on TEX adsorption by APCNTs-KOH.
Figure 11.17: Effect of pH on TEX adsorption onto APCNTs-KOH.
Figure 11.18: Effect of ionic strength of NaCl on TEX adsorption onto APCNTs-KOH.
Figure 11.19: Adsorption kinetics (a), PFO (b), PSO (c), and IPD (d) models for the adsorption of TEX on APCNTs-KOH.
Figure 11.20: Adsorption and desorption of TEX onto APCNTs-KOH at 40 °C.
Figure 11.21: Adsorption and desorption of toluene (a), ethylbenzene (b), p-xylene (c), m-xylene (d), and o-xylene (e) onto APCNTs-KOH at 20 °C.
Figure 11.22: TEM images of CNTs/C@Fe/CS.
Figure 11.23: Adsorption capacity of MB, MO, TC, and ROX on CNTs/C@Fe/CS with different CS contents.
Figure 11.24: Langmuir (a), Freundlich (b), and Temkin (c) adsorption isotherms model of MB, MO, TC, and ROX on CNTs/C@Fe/CS; FT-IR spectra (d) of CNTs/C@Fe/CS before and after adsorption.
Figure 11.25: Kinetic curves (a) and pseudo-second-order model (b).
Figure 11.26: Influence of pH values on MB, MO, TC, and ROX adsorption on CNTs/C@ Fe/CS.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1: Structural layer of Bentonite clay mineral.
Figure 13.2: Chemical structure of HDTMA.
Figure 13.3: XRD patterns of raw (a) and Na-bent (b).
Figure 13.4: (a) Adsorption/desorption Isotherms of N₂ at 77K by Arb and Arp by the method BET (b) Distribution of pores according to the method BJH.
Figure 13.5: pH of PZC of ArP, determined at 298 k for various ionic strengths.
Figure 13.6: Particle size distribution of Arp.
Figure 13.7: TEM micrographs of Na-bent.
Figure 13.9: FTIR of Na-bent, HDTMA solid, and Hi-bent.
Figure 13.10: XRD patterns of Na-bent and organic pillared bentinite prepared at different HDTMA+ concentrations.
Figure 13.11: (a) Bentonite interlayer space before HDTMA+ exchange; (b) HDTMA+ aggregation in bentonite: (1) Lateral monolayer (LM); (2) Lateral bilayer (LB); (3) Paraffin-type monolayer (PM); (4) Pseudotri-layer (PT); (5) Paraffin-type bilayer (PB). O: octahedral sheet. T: tetrahedral sheet.
Figure 13.12: d(001) spacing of Na-bent and organoclays (Hi-bent).
Figure 13.13: Effect of pH in cation exchange capacity (CEC) and surface charge of bentonite [32].
Figure 13.14: Mass titration curves of Na-bent and organobentonite obtained at I = 0.1 M of NaCl and at different pH values.
Figure 13.15: Potentiometric titration curves of Na-bent and organobentonite obtained at I = 0.1 M of NaCl.
Figure 13.16: Potentiometric titration curves versus pH at different ionic strengths of (a) Na-bent and (b) H₃-bent.
Figure 13.17: SEM images of Na-bent and organobentonites H_i-bent.
Figure 13.18: TEM micrographs of Na-bent and H₃-bent.
Figure 13.19: (a) Adsorption/desorption Isotherms of N₂ at 77K by Hi-bent. (b) Effect of surfactant density onto adsorption propriety of purified bentonite.
Figure 13.20: Thermogravimetric analyze TGA and differential thermogravoimetric analyze DTA curves of Na-bent (a), HDTMA-Br (b), and H₃-bent (c).
Figure 13.21: XPS survey scans of HDTMAB, Na-bent, and the representative organoclay H₃-bent.
Figure 13.22: Molecule structure of Rbll.
Figure 13.23: Effect of pH medium on the amount of dye removal from aqueous solution by Na-bent.
Figure 13.24: Effect of adsorbent (Na-bent) dose on the removal of RBII.
Figure 13.25: Adsorption isotherm of RBII by bionanocomposite Na-bent and H₃-bent.
Figure 13.26: Liquid-film diffusion plots for adsorption of RBII by H₃-bent.
Figure 13.27: Plots of q_t vs. t^0.5 for RBII adsorption onto H₃-bent.
Figure 13.28: Freundlich isotherm of RBII adsorption by the bionanocomposite H₃-bent.
Figure 13.29: Langmuir isotherm of RBII adsorption by the bionanocomposite H₃-bent.
Figure 13.31: Elovich model.
Figure 13.32: Pseudo-second-order.
Figure 13.33: Pseudo-first-order.
Figure 13.34: Mechanism Illustration of RBII-adsorption by H₃-bent.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1: FE-SEM images of GO/nylon-6 nanocomposite mats after hydrothermal treatment; (a, b) without and (c, d) with P25 NPs (insets of a and d are their respective water contact angle). (e) Comparison of the MB photodegradation of different specimens under UV irradiation. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [9]. Copyright 2013 Elsevier.
Figure 14.2: TEM images of (a) pristine ZnO flower and ZnO flowers on graphene sheets obtained from (b) 50, (c) 20, and (d) 10 mg GO containing solutions. Marked area of (d) is HRTEM (upper) and SAED pattern (lower) of ZnO/RGO composite obtained from 10 mg GO containing the hydrothermal solution. Comparison of the MB photodegradation of different photocatalysts obtained from (a) 0, (b) 50, (c) 20, and (d) 10 mg GO containing the hydrothermal solution. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [8].Copyright 2013 Elsevier.
Figure 14.4: The effects and mechanisms of different nanomaterials on the removal of various contaminants: (a) adsorption of heavy metals, (b) adsorption of organic contaminants, (c) adsorption of other inorganic contaminants, and (d) simultaneous adsorption and degradation of organic contaminants. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [3]. Copyright 2016 Elsevier.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1: Comparative properties of membrane technology.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1: Schematical representation of BC–CB nanofiber.
Figure 16.2: Schematic representation of the preparation and the utilization of BC–CB nanofibers.
Figure 16.3: SEM images of (a) BC nanofibers and (b) BC–CB nanofibers.
Figure 16.4: The contact angle measurements of (a) BC and (b) BC–CB nanofibers.
Figure 16.5: Effect of pH on adsorption of Hg²⁺ on the BC and BC—CB nanofibers. Experimental conditions; CB loading: 17.8 × 10⁴ nmol/g, C_Hg²⁺: 450 mg/L.
Figure 16.6: Effect of Hg²⁺concentration on adsorption of Hg²⁺ on the BC and BC–CB nanofibers. Experimental conditions; CB loading: 17.8 × 10⁴ nmol/g, pH: 5.0.
Figure 16.7: SEM/EDS measurements for BC–CB nanofibers (a) before adsorption, (b) after adsorption, and (c) EDS map showing the distribution of Hg²⁺ (yellow) and nitrogen atoms (pink) through the BC–CB nanofibers.
Figure 16.8: Competitive adsorption response of divalent metal ions mixture onto BC–CB nanofibers: CB loading: 17.8 × 10⁴ nmol/g; pH: 5.0; C_{each metal ion}: 100 mg/mL.
Figure 16.9: Reusability of BC–CB nanofibers for the removal of Hg²⁺; adsorption conditions; CB loading: 17.8 × 10⁴ nmol/g; C_Hg²⁺: 450 mg/L; pH: 5.0.

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1: Schematic Diagram of filtration of salivated water by carbon nanotube.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-32359-4

Preface

The main purpose of nanotechnology is to improve and develop materials, devices, and systems with fundamentally different properties by exploiting unique properties of molecular and supramolecular systems at the nano level. Nearly all the tools have inspired every field of science and technology, and the ideas of nanotechnology and innovation it brings continues to be made in medical technology, lab-on-a-chip, sensor technology, energy resources, and environmental protection and preservation. The continuous use of nanotechnology and nanomaterials in most of the disciplines is beginning to mature. This current book introduces the reader to the use of nanotechnology to preserve water resources, improve water quality and the social inferences therein that may affect approval or extensive usage.

Nanomaterials are nano-sized structures and have extraordinary physical and chemical properties, such as the unique optical, electrical, thermal, magnetic and adsorption characteristics, etc, due to their ultra-small size. Large specific surface areas of nanomaterials can improve the detection sensitivity and miniaturize the devices. In addition, these nanomaterials of various compositions and morphologies provide powerful tools for improving water quality. Therefore, the nanomaterials-based techniques can play vital roles in many water resources. Moreover, freedom to functionalize the nanomaterials with various chemical groups can also increase their affinity toward target contaminants, which is very much desirable for selective cleaning and detection of target contaminants in urban and industrial waters. In this book, we will summarize recent progresses due to novel nanomaterials for sustainable water resources.

The present book has been divided into four sections. Part 1: “Nanotechnology for Natural Resources” contains the details of preservation of natural resources especially water and long-term sustainable development. Recently, nanomaterials and polymer nanocomposites are researched as one of the prime materials for sustainable development. This section is an overview of the latest development and potential that nanotechnology has generated for water resources. Part 2: “Nano Sensor as Tools for Water Resources” has been described where sensors can be deployed as a standalone unit. One of its creators says that the technology may one day be adapted for use in deployable water chemistry labs and could help scientists working in pollution cleanup operations. This section presents nanosensors to detect contaminations in water at concentration levels of significance to human health and regulatory compliance. part 3: “Nanoseparation Techniques for Water Resources” describes the separation technologies and capabilities including a range of techniques, test environments, and related expertise to separate different waste fractions in a form in which they can be used effectively for other applications or disposed of. The techniques range from membrane technologies electrochemically assisted nutrient recovery to sludge treatment and hydrothermal carbonization. Finally, Part 4: “Sustainable Future with Nanotechnology” where water has been presented as core sustainable development and is very critical for environment, healthy ecosystems, and for human survival itself. It is vital to reduce the global burden of disease and improving the health, welfare, and productivity of populations. It is central to the production and preservation of a host of benefits and services for people. Water is also at the heart of adaptation to climate change, serving as the crucial link between the climate system, human society, and the environment. Overall, this book provides a summary of the state-of-the-art knowledge to scientists, engineers, and policy maker, about recent developments in nanotechnology and the sustainable water resources arena. Moreover, up-to-date knowledge on the economy, toxicity, and regulation related to nanotechnology have been presented in detail. In the end, the role of nanotechnology for green and sustainable future has also been briefly discussed.

Ajay Kumar Mishra and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain
Editors
October 2017

Nanotechnology for Sustainable Water Resources

Preface

Part I
NANOTECHNOLOGY FOR NATURAL RESOURCES