Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Chapter 1: Polypropylene (PP)-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites: State-of-the-Art, New Challenges and Opportunities

1.1 Polypropylene (PP)/Cellulose-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
1.2 Polypropylene (PP)/Starch-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
1.3 Polypropylene (PP)/Polylactic Acid-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
1.4 Polypropylene (PP)-Based Hybrid Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
1.5 Biodegradation and Flame Retardancy of Polypropylene-Based Composites and Nanocomposites
1.6 Polypropylene Single-Polymer Composites
1.7 Polypropylene/Plant-Based Fiber Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
1.8 Polypropylene Composite with Oil Palm Fibers: Method Development, Properties and Application
1.9 Interfacial Modification of Polypropylene-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
References

Chapter 2: Polypropylene (PP)/Cellulose-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites

2.1 Introduction
2.2 PP/Cellulose-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
2.3 Conclusion
References

Chapter 3: Polypropylene (PP)/Starch-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites

3.1 Introduction
3.2 PP/Starch Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
3.3 Conclusion
References

Chapter 4: Polypropylene (PP)/Polylactic Acid-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites

4.1 Introduction
4.2 PP/PLA-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
4.3 Conclusion
References

Chapter 5: Polypropylene (PP)-Based Hybrid Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Polypropylene-Based Hybrid Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
5.3 Conclusion
References

Chapter 6: Biodegradation and Flame Retardancy of Polypropylene-Based Composites and Nanocomposites

6.1 Biodegradability of PP-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
6.2 Flame Retardancy of Polypropylene-Based Composites and Nanocomposites
6.3 Conclusions
References

Chapter 7: Polypropylene Single-Polymer Composites

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Preparation Principles for PP SPCs
7.3 Processing Methods and Properties of PP SPCs
7.4 Applications
7.5 Summary
Acknowledgments
References

Chapter 8: Polypropylene/Plant-Based Fiber Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Types of Natural Fibers
8.3 Processing of PP/Plant-Based Fiber Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
8.4 Characterization and Properties of Plant-Based Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
8.5 Applications of Plant-Based Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
8.6 Future Perspectives and the Global Market
8.7 Conclusion
References

Chapter 9: Polypropylene Composite with Oil Palm Fibers: Method Development, Properties and Applications

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Method Development
9.3 Composite Properties
9.4 Applications
9.5 The Way Forward
References

Chapter 10: Interfacial Modification of Polypropylene-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Natural Fibers
10.3 Fiber-Matrix Interface
10.4 Interfacial Modification of PP-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
10.5 Conclusions and Future Trends
References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Various resources of cellulosic fibers used to prepare PP composites.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 The global warming potential (GWP) of each plastic with and without the inclusion of biogenic carbon [54].
Table 3.2 The impact on resource depletion for each plastic [54].

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Overview of a variety of compatibilizers for PP/PLA-based biocomposites.
Table 4.2 Cone calorimeter results for the PP/PLA/IFR1 and PP/PLA/IFR2 biocomposites with 25 wt% flame retardants. (Reproduced with permission from [56]; Copyright © 2012 Taylor & Francis)

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Preparation method for hybrid PP-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites.
Table 5.2 Compositions of coextruded hybrid PP-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites.
Table 5.3 Mechanical properties of hybrid PP composites reinforced with glass fibers and natural fibers: sisal fibers (SF), bamboo fibers (BF), hemp fibers (HF), jute fibers (JF) and wood fibers (WF).
Table 5.4 Mechanical properties of hybrid PP composites reinforced with wood fibers (WF) and different types of mineral fillers.
Table 5.5 Mechanical properties of hybrid PP-based bionanocomposites.
Table 5.6 Thermogravimetric analysis of hybrid PP-based biocomposites.
Table 5.7 Melting and crystallization properties of hybrid PP-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites.
Table 5.8 Water absorption of hybrid PP-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites.
Table 5.9 Limiting oxygen index (LOI) values of different PP-based hybrid bionanocomposites.
Table 5.10 Ignition time (IT), heat release rate (HRR), fire growth rate (FIGRA), and class determined according to the European fire classification system of PP-based hybrid biocomposites [43].
Table 5.11 Fire test results for coextruded composites made with the addition of carbon-based fillers [22].

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Soil test used for PP and PP-based biocomposites.
Table 6.2 Weight loss and water absorption of PP-based biocomposites.
Table 6.3 Percentage reduction of tensile strength of PP/bamboo fiber (BF) and PP/BF/glass fiber (GF) composites [10].
Table 6.4 Lightness (∆L) and tensile strength (TS) change of PP-based coextruded biocomposites after 500 hours of accelerated weathering.
Table 6.5 Cone calorimeter and UL-94 test results for PP and PP composites with 10 wt% of the fire retardants.
Table 6.6 LOI values and UL-94 rating of PP composite containing various amounts of APP [34].
Table 6.7 Flammability of flax/PP composites containing APP and EG [35].
Table 6.8 Cone calorimeter parameters at external heat flux 50 kW/m² [36].
Table 6.9 Test results for wood fiber/PP composites [40].
Table 6.10 Comparison of cone calorimeter data for PP and PP/clay nanocomposites at 35 kW/m² heat flux [52].
Table 6.11 Flammability test data for PP and PP nanocomposite [58].
Table 6.12 Combustion parameters of PP and PP composites in a cone calorimeter test provided under a heat flux of 50 kW/m² [60].
Table 6.13 Cone calorimeter and LOI results of WF/PP composites [66].
Table 6.14 Cone calorimeter data for composite samples at a heat flux of 35 kW/m² [28].

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 The effects of different parameters regarding the processing of PP SPCs.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Mechanical properties of some PBFs.
Table 8.2 Mechanical properties of different PBFs reinforced PP.
Table 8.3 The components made of natural fiber reinforced PP in major automotive manufacturers [15, 140, 141].
Table 8.4 Applications of PBF reinforced PP biocomposites and bionanocomposites [153, 154].

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Different treatments for cellulose extraction from oil palm fibers.
Table 9.2 Comparison of physical properties of purely extracted cellulose (PEC) from EFB after ultrasonication (SONO-CHEM) and autoclave (AUTO-CHEM) treatment [8].
Table 9.3 Elemental analysis of raw EFB and PEC from ultrasonication (SONOCHEM) and autoclave (AUTO-CHEM) treatment [8].
Table 9.4 Different fabrication techniques for blending lignocellulosic fibers to form composites [30].
Table 5.9 Materials and methods for oil palm-based PP composite fabrication.
Table 9.6 The FTIR peaks and the corresponding functional groups of cellulose and PP.
Table 9.7 The chemical constituents and physical properties of oil palm fibers [32].
Table 9.8 Comparison of different compositions present in natural fibers [33].
Table 9.9 Comparison of different mechanical properties existing in natural fibers [34].
Table 9.10 Comparison of mechanical properties of natural fibers [33].
Table 9.11 Utilization of NFPCs in the automotive industry [23].
Table 9.12 Utilization of NFPCs in various industries [23]
Table 9.13 Comparison of attributes between biocomposites and their applications [48].

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Physical properties of natural fibers (single fiber) [11, 15, 16].
Table 10.2 Chemical composition of plant fibers [17, 18].
Table 10.3 Surface energy values of some common natural fibers and matrices [33–35].
Table 10.4 Wetting parameters (van Oss-Good approach) of various biocomposites calculated using the surface energies of fiber and matrix [33, 34].
Table 10.5 Influence of silane treatment on the surface energy of jute fibers [52].
Table 10.6 Surface energies of untreated and chemically treated Alfa fibers [60].

List of Illustrations

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 A sketch of an extruder showing PP/cellulose composite processing.
Figure 2.2 Atomic force microscopic image of MFC.
Figure 2.3 TGA and DTGA curves for cellulose, PP, and PP/cellulose with and without PPMA.
Figure 2.4 SEM images of the fracture surface of composites with cellulose fibers without coupling agent at (a) low magnification and (b) higher magnification.
Figure 2.5 SEM images of the fracture surface of composites with cellulose fibers without coupling agent at (a) low magnification and (b) higher magnification.
Figure 2.6 XRD patterns of cellulose, PP and composite PP/MAPP with cellulose [55].
Figure 2.7 A part of X-ray diffractograms of PP and nanocomposites reinforced with treated and untreated CNC [9].
Figure 2.8 Typical rheological curves of PP and composites with treated and untreated cellulose (a) storage modulus (G′), and (b) loss modulus (G″) [62].
Figure 2.9 Complex viscosity (η*) of PP and composites with treated and untreated cellulose [62].
Figure 2.10 Tensile strength of PP and its composites with (a) untreated fibers and (b) treated fibers [72].

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Molecular structure of starch [10].
Figure 3.2 Schematic representation of the principle of mechanical milling.
Figure 3.3 Brabender model 50 EHT.
Figure 3.4 SEM image of the fracture surface of PP/starch blends. (Reprinted with permission from [9])
Figure 3.5 Configuration of a typical single-screw extruder.
Figure 3.6 Common types of twin-screw extruders: (a) intermeshing co-rotating, (b) intermeshing counter-rotating, and (c) non-intermeshing counter-rotating.
Figure 3.7 Tensile testing machine (Instron 4465).
Figure 3.8 TGA curves for (a) pristine starch and (b) neat PP, PP/starch (PCS), PP/DEA/starch (PDS), PP/DEA/starch with different MAPP contents (PDPS) under nitrogen conditions. (Reprinted with permission from [20])
Figure 3.9 Expected chemical reactions of (a) C30B polar organo-modified clay and MAPP compatibilizer, (b) formation of an ester and acid groups, (c) final ester chemical structure. (Adapted from [17])
Figure 3.10 FTIR spectrum of samples PP, PPST-A, PPST-B and PPST-C. (Reprinted with permission from [9])
Figure 3.11 Safety helmets made from Biopropylene.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Cross-sectional TEM image of filaments in different configurations: a PP core/PLA sheath bicomponent filament coated in Au and embedded in epoxy (labeled) is shown. (Reproduced with permission from [17]; Copyright © 2012 American Chemical Society)
Figure 4.2 SEM micrographs of the PP/PLA composites with different weight fractions: (a) 90:10; (b) 10:90; (c) 75:25; (d) 25:75; (e,f) 50:50. (Reproduced with permission from [20]; Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd.)
Figure 4.3 Proposed graft copolymer structures formed between PEGMMA and PLA. PEGMMA composition: x:y:z ≈ 44:5:1 with about 25 glycidyl groups per PEGMMA chain on average. (Reproduced with permission from [27]; Copyright © 2015 American Chemical Society)
Figure 4.4 SEM images of PP/PLA (10/90) and PP/PLA/PEGMMA (10/90/5). (Reproduced with permission from [27]; Copyright © 2015, American Chemical Society)
Figure 4.5 Schematic illustration of different structures of composite arising from the interaction of layered nanomaterials and polymers: (a) phase-separated, (b) intercalated, and (c) exfoliated.
Figure 4.6 TEM images of the PP/PLA composites containing 3.9 wt% sepiolite at (a) low and (b) high magnification, (c) PP/PLA/Clay (25/75/3), and (d) PP/PLA/Clay/PTW (25/75/5/5). (Reproduced with permission from [36] and [38]; Copyright © 2011, 2015 Springer-Verlag)
Figure 4.7 (a) DSC crystallization thermograms and (b) WAXS patterns of the pure PLA, PP and PP/PLA composites. (Reproduced with permission from [25], Copyright © 2016 Royal Society of Chemistry; and [38], Copyright © 2015 Springer-Verlag)
Figure 4.8 (a) Complex viscosity and (b) dynamic storage modulus for the PP/PLA composites obtained in dynamic frequency sweep. (Reproduced with permission from [26]; Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd.)
Figure 4.9 Volume electrical resistivity of the PP/PLA/MWCNT composites with different MWCNT contents. (Reproduced with permission from [33]; Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd.)
Figure 4.10 Thermogravimetric (TG) curves of the neat PP, PLA and PP/PLA composites. (Reproduced with permission from [26]; Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd.)
Figure 4.11 Typical stress-strain curves of neat PLA, PP and their composites. (Reproduced with permission from [36]; Copyright © 2011 Springer-Verlag)
Figure 4.12 Correlation of impact strength with localization of the nanoclays. (Reproduced with permission from [34]; Copyright © 2016 Taylor & Francis)
Figure 4.13 Permeability values and morphology of the PP/PLA composites. (Reproduced with permission from [48]; Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd.)
Figure 4.14 The LOI value and UL-94 rating of PP/PLA/IFR1 and PP/PLA/IFR2 biocomposites. (Reproduced with permission from [56]; Copyright © 2012 Taylor & Francis)

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Color change of extruded [42] and coextruded PP/wood fiber composites [24] containing inorganic pigments.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 SEM images of the surface of a PP/wood fiber/carbon black composite weathered for 1000 hours under (a) outdoor, (b) xenon and (c) xenon and spray conditions (magnification x160) [11].
Figure 6.2 Schematic representation of flame retardancy models of WPCs: (a) WF/PP, (b) WF/PP/MAPP, (c) WF/PP/MAPP/CNT(1%) and (d) WF/PP/MAPP/CNT-OH(1%). (Adapted from [28])

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Strategies for widening the processing temperature window of SPCs’ production [4].
Figure 7.2 DSC endotherms for the (——) uncompacted PP fiber and (……) after melting and rescanning [7].
Figure 7.3 DSC curve showing the effect of constraining on the crystalline melting point of an iPP fiber [11].
Figure 7.4 DSC melting endotherms of PP homopolymer and PP copolymers [13].
Figure 7.5 DSC curves of the different PP materials with different polymorphs [15].
Figure 7.6 DSC thermograms of PP fiber and PP matrix [16].
Figure 7.7 DSC curves of the PP-based TPE matrix (a) and the PP homopolymer reinforcement (b) [17].
Figure 7.8 Principle sketch of hot compaction on the example of unidirectionally arranged fibers [3].
Figure 7.9 A schematic diagram of the woven structure of a compacted sheet [20].
Figure 7.10 Etched SEM micrographs of compacted PP fibrillated tapes: (a) details of epitaxial crystallization, (b) section across a bundle of tapes [6].
Figure 7.11 SEM micrographs of peel fracture surfaces of PP SPCs: (a) peeled parallel to the weft and (b) peeled parallel to the warp. Arrows at top right indicate peel direction [21].
Figure 7.12 Details of the morphology of a compacted PP sample made with an interleaved film: cross section of the sample showing the original tapes (transverse [T] and longitudinal [L]) and the matrix phase [M] [22].
Figure 7.13 The scheme of the plain weft knitted fabric with inlaid iPP fiber reinforcement (hereafter referred to as knitted fabric) and carded and needle-punched mat [23].
Figure 7.14 SEM images of the cut cross section of the hot consolidated (at 160 and 170 °C) knitted fabric (nominal reinforcing content: 38.2 wt%) [23].
Figure 7.15 Schematic of stacking sequence and the hot pressing process for preparing PP SPCs [24].
Figure 7.16 Schematic of film stacking process for preparing PP SPCs [15].
Figure 7.17 Light microscopic images taken from the polished cross section of PP SPCs in the range of 150–175°C [15].
Figure 7.18 Scheme of the tape winding process for the fabrication of PP SPCs [26].
Figure 7.19 Typical failure behavior of specimens of β-PP-based SPC after static tensile and dynamic impact tests manufactured at 5 and 15 °C above the relevant matrix melting temperature respectively [27].
Figure 7.20 Fracture surface of peel specimens of β-PP based SPCs manufactured at (a) 157 °C and (b) 187 °C after testing [27].
Figure 7.21 PLM image of a thin section of α-rPP-based SPCs compression molded at 172 °C [28].
Figure 7.22 Scheme of the α-PP tape production by twin-screw extruder followed by stretching in a hot air chamber. This figure also shows the top view of the hot air chamber along with the winding pattern of the tape within [29].
Figure 7.23 Polarized optical micrographs for (a) α-rPP matrix, (b) β-rPP matrix-based single tape model composite, (c) β-rPP matrix and (d) β-rPP matrix-based single tape model composite. Note: arrows represent the transcrystalline regions [29].
Figure 7.24 Schematic of undercooling melt film stacking for PP SPC manufacturing [31].
Figure 7.25 Scanning electron micrograph of the pulled-out fiber from the second single-fiber specimen [29].
Figure 7.26 Schematic of continuous tape coextrusion and solid-state drawing for the production of highly drawn coextruded tapes [36].
Figure 7.27 Schematic of filament winding plate and hot press to manufacture PP SPCs [13].
Figure 7.28 Optical micrograph of a cross section of coextruded unidirectional PP SPCs [36].
Figure 7.29 Composite optical micrograph of the fibrillated surface of a unidirectional all-PP composite loaded in the tape direction [13].
Figure 7.30 Photographs of the woven PP SPC tape fabric (left) and the consolidated PP SPC laminate (right) [34].
Figure 7.31 Temperature–pressure processing window for PP SPCs consolidation [33].
Figure 7.32 Plain knitted fabric structure [37].
Figure 7.33 Schematic of the injection-compression molding process [37].
Figure 7.34 Photographs of polished cross section of the PP SPC specimens under different molding conditions [37].
Figure 7.35 Temperature distribution of the melt in the mold cavity for injection temperatures of 200, 240 and 280 °C: (a) 1 s after injection and (b) 2 s after injection [38].
Figure 7.36 Schematic of the mold section of the insert injection molding for PP SPCs [38].
Figure 7.37 Schematic of the mold section of the insert injection molding for PP SPCs with sandwiched woven fabric [38].
Figure 7.38 Polarized images of sections of PP SPCs molded at different injection temperatures: (a) 200 °C (cross section); (b) 240 °C (cross section); (c) 280 °C (cross section); and (d) 280 °C (longitudinal section) [38].
Figure 7.39 SEM images of (a) fracture surface after tensile failure of PP SPCs made at 280 °C; (b) fiber at fracture surface; (c) original fiber; and (d) pulled-out fiber after tensile failure made at 280 °C [38].
Figure 7.40 Photograph of the PP SPC samples made at different nozzle temperatures of 160, 170, 180, 190 and 200 °C: (a) before tensile tests, (b) after tensile tests, (c) fracture sections [40].
Figure 7.41 Micrographs of the fracture surface of the broken PP SPC sample [40].
Figure 7.42 Schematic of preparation of unidirectional PP SPC by filament winding (a) followed by compression molding (b) [17].
Figure 7.43 Injection-molded PP SPC specimen [17].
Figure 7.44 Fracture surfaces of the PP SPCs injection molded at (a) 120 °C, (b) 140 °C, and (c) 160 °C, respectively [17].
Figure 7.45 The coextrusion die head used for PP SPC pellets preparation (left) and the inlet and outlet of the coextrusion die with visible PP fibers (right) [41].
Figure 7.46 SEM images of the coextruded pellets, PP SPC with 5% fibers [41].
Figure 7.47 SEM images of injection-molded samples: neat PP (left), PP SPC/5% fibers (center), PP SPC/40% fibers (right) [41].
Figure 7.48 Some examples of CURV products [44].
Figure 7.49 Some examples of PURE products [45].
Figure 7.50 Some examples of Armordon products [46].
Figure 7.51 Compomeer Compo2 panels [48].
Figure 7.52 Process routes to produce PP SPCs.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.6 Scanning electron microscopy images of the impact fracture surfaces of the PP composites reinforced by (a) untreated jute fibers, (b) alkali treated fibers, (c) alkali and silane treated jute fibers, (d) alkali and MAPP treated jute fibers, (e) ASMT (3600), and (f) ASMT (35000). (Reproduced with permission from [37]; Copyright © 2010 Express Polymer Letters)

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 (a) Oil palm fresh fruit bunch, (b) fruit cross section [3], and (c) empty fruit bunch.
Figure 9.2 Field emission scanning electron microscope micrograph of (a) Raw EFB, (b) EtOH-EFB, (c) NaOH-EFB, (d) Raw/PP, (e) EtOH/PP, (f) NaOH/PP, (g) PEC-US/PP, and (h) PEC-AUTO/ PP at 10% PEC loading [8].
Figure 9.3 X-ray diffractogram of (a) raw fiber, (b) extracted EFB cellulose, and (c) commercial cellulose [12].
Figure 9.4 Thermogravimetric analysis of PP, Raw EFB/PP, EtOH/PP, NaOH/PP, PEC-US/PP, and PEC-AUTO/PP [8].
Figure 9.5 Tensile strength of (a) 20% PEC-US-PP, (b) 20% PEC-AUTO-PP, (c) 25% PECUS-PP, (d) 25% PEC-AUTO-PP, (e) 30% PEC-US-PP, and (f) 30% PEC-AUTO-PP [8].

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Classification of natural fibers [10].
Figure 10.2 Chemical structure of cellulose [20].
Figure 10.3 Contact angle, θ, and surface energies, γ, for a liquid drop on a solid surface [30].
Figure 10.4 Schematic stress distributions and load-displacement plot during the single-fiber pull-out test [30].
Figure 10.5 Schematic diagram of the plasma treatment setup [41].
Figure 10.6 A possible reaction between the free isocyanate groups in urethane derivative of PPG and sisal fiber [44].
Figure 10.7 Ester content of chemically treated fibers [45].
Figure 10.8 The general mechanism of alkoxysilane reaction with fiber surface [49].
Figure 10.9 Specific mechanical properties of kenaf and glass fiber reinforced PP composites [51].
Figure 10.10 The reaction between natural fibers and maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (MAPP) copolymers [49].
Figure 10.11 Polar component and the total surface energy of natural fibers before and after chemical treatments [57].
Figure 10.12 The chemical treatments used on Alfa fibers [60].
Figure 10.13 The reaction between cellulose and PMPPIC [49].
Figure 10.14 The coupling mechanism of m-TMI-g-PP with jute and PP [68].
Figure 10.15 Reaction between hexamethylenediisocyanate and the surface hydroxyl groups of MFC [69].
Figure 10.16 Reaction between cellulose fiber and triazine coupling agents [49].

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-28356-0

Preface

This book, Polypropylene-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites, summarizes many of the recent research accomplishments in the area reflected in the title. In addition to the state-of-the-art and new challenges and opportunities in this area, an effort has been made to discuss many other topics related to polypropylene-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites. Included are subjects such as PP/cellulose-, PP/starch-, and PP/polylactic acid-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites; PP-based hybrid biocomposites and bionanocomposites; the biodegradation and flame retardancy of PP-based composites and nanocomposites; PP single-polymer composites; PP/plant-based fiber biocomposites and bionanocomposites; the development method, properties and application of PP/oil palm fiber composite; and the interfacial modification of PP-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites.

This book will be a very valuable reference source for university and college faculties, professionals, post-doctoral research fellows, senior graduate students, and researchers from R&D laboratories working in the area of polypropylene biocomposites and bionanocomposites. The various chapters in this book were contributed by prominent researchers from industry, academia and government/private research laboratories across the globe, resulting in an up-to-date record of the major findings and observations in the field.

The scope of the introductory first chapter ranges from the state-of-the-art and preparation methods of polypropylene biocomposites and bionanocomposites to environmental concerns about them. A thorough review of PP/cellulose-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites is presented in Chapter 2. The authors have divided this chapter into three parts: preparation, characterization and applications. Thermal, morphological, X-ray diffraction, rheological, viscoelastic, electrical and mechanical characterization methods are among those discussed in the characterization part of the chapter. The last part of the chapter is divided into automotive, packaging, structural, fire retardant, electrical and electronic areas of application.

In Chapter 3, various preparation and characterization methods of PP/starch-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites are discussed by the authors. The application of these biocomposites and bionanocomposites in biomedical, packaging, automotive, military, coating, fire retardant, aerospace, and optical fields are also covered. Recycling and lifetime studies conducted on these biocomposites and bionanocomposites are equally highlighted.

Chapter 4 on polypropylene/polylactic acid (PP/PLA)-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites first introduces their preparation methods, including melt blending, melt spinning and some other newly emerging methods like autoclave preparation. Then the morphology, compatibility and crystallization of the PP/PLA-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites are discussed in order to obtain resultant materials with uniform distribution and good compatibility among different components. Also summarized are the rheological, electrical, mechanical, thermal, gas barrier, and flame retardant properties of these biocomposites and bionanocomposites, and how each of these properties is dependent upon the composition of the biocomposites and bionanocomposites.

Summarized in Chapter 5 are many of the recent research accomplishments in the area of hybrid biocomposites based on polypropylene. In this chapter, the author discusses the preparation, characterization and applications of PP-based hybrid biocomposites and bionanocomposites. Specifically discussed are their mechanical, thermal, and weathering properties and their role in improving durability, flame retardancy and thermal stability.

A good basis for understanding the biodegradation and flame retardancy of polypropylene composites and nanocomposites is provided in Chapter 6. This chapter summarizes information obtained from highly ranked journals published during the last two decades about the flame retardancy of these biocomposites and nanocomposites. The chapter begins with a short description of the specific flammability of PP, followed by an overview of fire retardants and flame testing methods and standards. Preparation principles, processing methods, properties and applications of polypropylene single-polymer composites are discussed in Chapter 7.

In Chapter 8, different subsections are devoted to topics such as types of natural fibers, the processing of plant-based fiber bionanocomposites with polypropylene, the characterization of plant fiber reinforced polypropylene, applications of plant fiber reinforced PP-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites and future perspectives in the global market. Polypropylene composite with oil palm fibers, its method of development, properties and applications, are discussed in Chapter 9. In this chapter, the authors explain pretreatment methods, cellulose extraction, composite development, characterizations, composite properties and applications. The last chapter of this book focuses on the interfacial modification of PP-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites. First, the nature of fiber-matrix interface is introduced and then the qualitative and quantitative methods for the determination of interface strength are outlined. Finally, the interface modification of PP-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites are presented in light of the existing literature.

In conclusion, the editors would like to express their sincere gratitude to all the contributors to this book, whose excellent support aided in the successful completion of this venture. We are grateful to them for the commitment and sincerity they have shown towards their contributions. Without their enthusiasm and support, the compilation of this book would not have been possible. We would also like to thank all the reviewers who have taken their valuable time to make critical comments on each chapter. We also thank the publisher John Wiley and Sons Ltd. and Scrivener Publishing for recognizing the demand for such a book, for realizing the increasing importance of the area of polypropylene-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites and for starting such a new project, which not many other publishers have handled.

Visakh. P. M.
Matheus Poletto
September 2017