Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Chapter 1: Fuel Cells

1.1 Conventional Fuel Cells
1.2 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
1.3 Direct Ethanol Fuel Cells
1.4 Direct Formate Fuel Cells
1.5 Direct Urea Fuel Cells
1.6 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Systems
1.7 Biological Fuel Cells
References

Chapter 2: Polymer Electrodes

2.1 Porous Electrode Substrate
2.2 Electrode Assembly for Solid Polymer Fuel Cell
2.3 Electrode for Fuel Cell
2.4 Flow-Field Plate
2.5 Catalyst for Fuel Electrode
2.6 Electrode Catalyst and Solid Polymer Fuel Cell
2.7 Membrane Electrode Assembly
References

Chapter 3: Polymer Membranes

3.1 History
3.2 Desired Properties of Membranes
3.3 Types of Membrane Materials
3.4 Fabrication
3.5 Degradation
References

Chapter 4: Solar Cells

4.1 History
4.2 Types of Solar Cells
4.3 Solar Cell Efficiency
4.4 Fabrication Methods
4.5 Silver Nanoplates and Core-Shell Nanoparticles
4.6 Vanadium Oxide Hydrate as Hole-Transport Layer
4.7 Graphene Quantum Dot-Modified Electrodes
4.8 Enhancing Thermal Stability by Electron Beam Irradiation
4.9 Inverted Polymer Solar Cell
4.10 Single-Junction Polymer Solar Cells
4.11 Medium-Bandgap Polymer Donor
4.12 Flexible Polymer Solar Cells
4.13 PCPDTBT
4.14 Extended Storage Life
4.15 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
4.16 Direct Arylation Polymerization
4.17 Polymer-Fullerene Solar Cells
4.18 Functionalized Poly(thiophene)
4.19 Fullerene
4.20 Transparent Window Materials
4.21 Solar Cell Encapsulants
4.22 Anti-reflection Coating
4.23 Fullerene-Free Polymer Solar Cells
References

Chapter 5: Rechargeable Batteries

5.1 Aluminium Batteries
5.2 Zinc Batteries
5.3 Sodium Batteries
5.4 Magnesium Batteries
5.5 Lithium Batteries
References

Index

Acronyms
Chemicals
General Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Organohydrogen poly(siloxane) (7).
Table 1.2 Halogen-containing aromatic monomers (26).
Table 1.3 Nitrogen-containing heterocyclic monomers (26).
Table 1.4 Thermodynamic data of some alcohols (32).
Table 1.5 Thermostable enzymes (123).

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Monomers for precursors for carbon fibers (3).

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Types of Membrane Materials (1).
Table 3.2 Materials for Polymer Electrolyte Membranes (77).
Table 3.3 Monomers (88).
Table 3.4 Triazine monomers (91).
Table 3.5 Findings on electrospun fiber polymer-based membranes for fuel cell application.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Important events in the use of solar cells (11).
Table 4.2 Organic dielectrics (24).
Table 4.3 p-Type organic semiconductors (24).
Table 4.4 n-Type organic semiconductors (24).
Table 4.5 Efficiencies of single-junction solar cells (57).
Table 4.6 Efficiencies of direct beam solar cells (57).
Table 4.7 Silane coupling agents (139).

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Conventional polymers used (11).
Table 5.2 Properties of polymers with quinone units (49).

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (6).
Figure 1.2 Siloxanes (7).
Figure 1.3 Nafion®.
Figure 1.4 Monomers.
Figure 1.5 Monomers.
Figure 1.6 Tri-o-tolylphosphine and Bis(triphenylphosphine) nickel chloride.
Figure 1.7 SU-8.
Figure 1.8 Electron microscopy images of selected Pt Ru catalyst layers prepared using (a) NBA and (b) IPA as organic solvents, reprinted from (43) with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 1.9 (a) Low- and (b) high-magnification SEM, (c) TEM and (d) HRTEM images of NiCo2O4-DL (inset in [d]: SAED pattern); (e) low- and (f and inset) high-magnification SEM, (g) TEM and (h) HRTEM images of NiCo2O4-FL (inset in [h]: SAED pattern), reprinted from (48) with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 1.10 Iron-based catalyst precursors.
Figure 1.11 Basic principle of a direct ethanol fuel cell (32).
Figure 1.12 4-1-[(2,4-Dinitrophenyl)-hydrazono]-ethylbenzene-1,3-diol.
Figure 1.13 Acrylonitrile, Acrylamide, Acrylhydrazide.
Figure 1.14 Compounds for surface grafting.
Figure 1.15 Schematic view of a bioreactor for wastewater treatment (140).
Figure 1.16 Flavin adenine dinucleotide.
Figure 1.17 Methylene blue.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Scanning electron micrograph of a surface of a porous electrode substrate (2).

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 L-Histidine.
Figure 3.2 Monomers used for the condensation polymerization (24).
Figure 3.3 Acetylacetone.
Figure 3.4 Tetra-sulfonated poly(p-phenylene-co-aryl ether ketone).
Figure 3.5 Side chains.
Figure 3.7 Torlon® (32).
Figure 3.9 Silicotungstic acid.
Figure 3.11 Sulfonated poly(sulfone) (SPSU), Sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) (SPEEK), Sulfonated poly(4-phenoxy benzoyl-1,4-phenylene) (SPPBP).
Figure 3.12 Initiators.
Figure 3.13 2,2-Dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone.
Figure 3.14 Vinyl monomers.
Figure 3.15 Fluor-Containing Copolymers.
Figure 3.16 Triazine monomers.
Figure 3.17 Other monomers.
Figure 3.18 Perfluorocyclobutane-containing polymer (89).
Figure 3.19 Triphenyl-1,3,5-triazine.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide.
Figure 4.2 Mediators.
Figure 4.3 Divinyltetramethyldisiloxane-bis(benzocyclobutene).
Figure 4.4 Phthalocyanine.
Figure 4.5 3,4,9,10-Perylene-tetracarboxylic dianhydride, N,N′-Dimethyl 3,4,9,10-perylene tetracarboxylicdiimide.
Figure 4.6 Pullulan.
Figure 4.7 Polymerization of 3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene (31).
Figure 4.8 Polymers.
Figure 4.9 Fluorinated benzothiadiazole-containing polymer.
Figure 4.10 Spiro-OMeTAD.
Figure 4.11 N,N-di-p-Methoxyphenylamine.
Figure 4.12 Slot-die coating roller.
Figure 4.13 PBDTTT-C-T.
Figure 4.14 Poly[(ethylhexyl-thiophenyl)-benzodithiophene-(ethylhexyl)-thienothiophene].
Figure 4.15 Work function of the graphene quantum dot-modified electrodes (95).
Figure 4.16 Bandgap copolymer (PBO) (99).
Figure 4.17 ITIC: 3,9-Bis(2-methylene-(3-(1,1-dicyanomethylene)-indanone))-5,5,11,11-tetrakis(4-hexylphenyl)-dithieno[2,3-d:2′,3′-d′]-s-indaceno[1,2-b:5,6-b′]dithiophene.
Figure 4.18 Poly[(2,5-bis(2-hexyldecyloxy)phenylene)-alt-(5,6-difluoro-4,7-di(thiophen-2-yl)benzo[c] [1,2,5]thiadiazole)].
Figure 4.19 Poly[2,6-(4,4-bis-(2-ethylhexyl)-4H-cyclopenta[2,1-b;3,4-b′] dithiophene)-alt-4,7-(2,1,3-benzothiadiazole)].
Figure 4.20 C-PCPDTBT and Si-PCPDTBT (103).
Figure 4.21 PC 70 BM (107).
Figure 4.22 Poly(arylamine biscarbonate ester) (107).
Figure 4.23 1-Butyl-3-methyl imidazolium iodide.
Figure 4.24 1-Methyl-3-propylimidazolium iodide.
Figure 4.25 N-Phthaloylchitosan.
Figure 4.26 Direct arylation polymerization to prepare the polymer PCPDTTBT (123).
Figure 4.27 Device structure using PCPDTTBT: PC71BM (123).
Figure 4.28 2,6-Dibromo-1,5-naphthyridine.
Figure 4.29 C60 Fullerene.
Figure 4.30 Synthesis of C60 Fullerene by dehydrohalogenation (133).
Figure 4.31 Silane coupling agents (139).
Figure 4.32 Poly[(2,6-(4,8-bis(5-(2-ethylhexyl)thiophen-2-yl)-benzo-[1,2-b:4,5-b′]dithiophene))-alt-(5,5-(1′,3′-di-2-thienyl-5′,7′-bis(2-ethylhexyl)benzo[1′,2′-c:4′,5′-c′]dithiophene-4,8-dione))].
Figure 4.33 Alkoxycarbonyl substituted PDCBT derivative.
Figure 4.34 Trialkylsilyl substituted 2D-conjugated polymer (150).
Figure 4.35 2,5-Bis(8-(17-phenyl)-7,9,16,18-tetraazabenzodifluoranthene-3,4,12,13-tetracarboxylic acid diimide)-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (R=2-decyltetrdecyl).
Figure 4.36 PBDTT-FTTE.
Figure 4.37 PSEHTT: Thiazolothiazole-dithienylsilole donor polymer.
Figure 4.38 Synthesis of PBDTS-DTBTO by Stille coupling.
Figure 4.39 Spirobifluorene compound.
Figure 4.40 Synthesis of IDSe-T-IC (154).
Figure 4.41 FBR.
Figure 4.42 IDTIDT-IC.
Figure 4.43 DTBTF (158).
Figure 4.44 Electron acceptor based on 2-Vinyl-4,5-dicyanoimidazole.
Figure 4.45 Poly[(5,6-difluoro-2,1,3-benzothiadiazol-4,7-diyl)-alt-(3,3″′-di-(2-decyltetradecyl)-2,2′;5′,2″;5″,2″′-quaterthiophen-5,5″′-diyl)] (PffBT4T-2DT) (160).
Figure 4.46 PTFB-O polymer and PTFB-P polymer (163).
Figure 4.47 PBDD4T (164).
Figure 4.48 PBT-TTz and PBT-S-TTz (165).
Figure 4.49 Tetrafluoroquinoxaline-based polymer (166).

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 1-Butylpyridinium chloride.
Figure 5.2 1-Ethyl-3-methyl imidazolium chloride.
Figure 5.3 Poly(aniline-co-N-methylthionine).
Figure 5.4 1-Butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium trifluoromethylsulfonate.
Figure 5.5 2-Hydroxy-3-cardanylpropyl methacrylate.
Figure 5.6 Magnesium bis(hexamethyldisilazide).
Figure 5.7 β-Cyclodextrin.
Figure 5.8 Lithium bisoxalatoborate.
Figure 5.9 Calix[4]quinone.
Figure 5.10 1,5-Diaminoanthraquinone.
Figure 5.11 1-Ethyl-3-methyl imidazolium tetrafluoroborate.
Figure 5.12 Lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide and 1-Butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide.
Figure 5.13 Pristine.
Figure 5.14 Synthesis of poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide) (49).
Figure 5.15 Poly(anthraquinonyl sufide).
Figure 5.16 1,1-Methylenedi-4,1-phenylene bismaleimide.
Figure 5.17 Electron acceptors.

This edition first published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
© 2018 Scrivener Publishing LLC
For more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as permitted by law Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Wiley Global Headquarters
111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA

For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty
While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation You should consult with a specialist where appropriate Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-48010-5

Preface

This book focuses on the materials used for fuel cells, solar panels, and storage devices such as rechargeable batteries.

Fuel cell devices, such as direct methanol fuel cells, direct ethanol fuel cells, direct urea fuel cells, as well as biological fuel cells and the electrolytes, membranes, and catalysts used therein are detailed. Separate chapters are devoted to polymer electrode materials and membranes.

With regard to solar cells, the types of solar cells are detailed, such as, inorganic-organic hybrid solar cells, solar powered biological fuel cells, heterojunction cells, multijunction cells, and others. Also, the fabrication methods are described. In addition, the electrolytes, membranes, and catalysts used therein are detailed.

The chapter dealing with rechargeable batteries explains the types of rechargeable devices, such as aluminium-based batteries, zinc batteries, magnesium batteries, and most importantly lithium batteries. Materials that are used for cathodes, anodes and electrolytes are detailed.

The text focuses on the basic issues and also the literature of the past decade. Beyond education, this book may serve the needs of polymer specialists as well as other specialists, e.g., materials scientists, electrochemical engineers, etc., who have only a passing knowledge of these issues, but need to know more.

How to Use This Book

Utmost care has been taken to present reliable data. Because of the vast variety of material presented here, however, the text cannot be complete in all aspects, and it is recommended that the reader study the original literature for more complete information.

Index

There are three indices: an index of acronyms, an index of chemicals, and a general index. In the index of chemicals, compounds that occur extensively are not included at every occurrence, but rather when they appear in an important context. When a compound is found in a figure, the entry is marked in boldface letters in the chemical index.

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to our university librarians, Dr. Christian Hasen-hüttl, Dr. Johann Delanoy, Franz Jurek, Margit Keshmiri, Dolores Knabl Steinhäufl, Friedrich Scheer, Christian Slamenik, Renate Tschabuschnig, and Elisabeth Groß for their support in literature acquisition. In addition, many thanks to the head of my department, ProfessorWolfgang Kern, for his interest and permission to prepare this text.

I also want to express my gratitude to all the scientists who have carefully published their results concerning the topics dealt with herein. This book could not have been otherwise compiled.

Last, but not least, I want to thank the publisher, Martin Scrivener, for his abiding interest and help in the preparation of the text. In addition, my thanks go to Jean Markovic, who made the final copyedit with utmost care.

Johannes Fink
Leoben, 9th October 2017

Fuel Cells, Solar Panels and Storage Devices

Materials and Methods

Preface

How to Use This Book

Index

Acknowledgements