Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Chapter 1: Arsenic: Toxic Effects and Remediation

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Arsenic Concentration in Water
1.3 Exposure of Arsenic in Human Body
1.4 Metabolism and Excretion of Arsenious Compounds
1.5 Arsenic Toxicity and Mechanism
1.6 Detoxification of Arsenic
1.7 Arsenic Remediation Technologies
1.8 Adsorption and Recent Advancement
1.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
Abbreviations
References

Chapter 2: Recent Trends in Textile Effluent Treatments: A Review

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Industrial Dyes, Dying Practices, and Associated Problems
2.3 Wastewater Remediation
2.4 Physical Methods
2.5 Chemical Methods
2.6 Bioremediation
2.7 Products Recognition and Mechanisms of Dye Degradation
2.8 Conclusion
2.9 Future Outlook
References

Chapter 3: Polyaniline as an Inceptive Dye Adsorbent from Effluent

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Pollution Due to Dyes
3.3 Methods Used for the Dye Removal
3.4 Adsorption Kinetics
3.5 Polyaniline: An Emerging Adsorbent
3.6 Conclusion
References

Chapter 4: Immobilized Microbial Biosorbents for Wastewater Remediation

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Immobilized Microbial Biosorbent
4.3 Biosorption Mechanism
4.4 Conclusion
References

Chapter 5: Remediation of Cr (VI) Using Clay Minerals, Biomasses and Industrial Wastes as Adsorbents

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Isotherm Models
5.3 Thermodynamics of Adsorption
5.4 Kinetics of Adsorption
5.5 Solution pH
5.6 Clay Minerals
5.7 Biomasses
5.8 Industrial Wastes
5.9 Conclusion
References

Chapter 6: Microbial Diversity as a Tool for Wastewater Treatment

6.1 Overview of Wastewater; Sources, Pollutants, and Characteristics
6.2 Role of Dominant Wastewater Treatment Communities in Biodegradation
6.3 Methods for the Treatment of Wastewater
6.4 Conclusion
References

Chapter 7: Role of Plant Species in Bioremediation of Heavy Metals from Polluted Areas and Wastewaters

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Heavy Metals (HM) Worldwide
7.3 Allochthonous and Autochthonous Plants
7.4 Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals (HM)
7.5 Methodology
7.6 Analysis of Research on Heavy Metals (HM) and Native and Endemic Plant Species
7.7 Results
7.8 Conclusion
References

Chapter 8: Bioremediation: A Green, Sustainable and Eco-Friendly Technique for the Remediation of Pollutants

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Immobilization
8.3 Enzyme Immobilization Strategies
8.4 Adsorption
8.5 Entrapment
8.6 Encapsulation
8.7 Covalent Binding
8.8 Self-Immobilization
8.9 Properties of Immobilized Enzymes
8.10 Enzymes Sources
8.11 Conditions for Lipid Degradation
8.12 Environmental Applications of Ligninolytic Enzymes
8.13 Conclusions
References

Chapter 9: Role of Plant-Based Biochar in Pollutant Removal: An Overview

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Preparation Methods of Biochar
9.3 Physico-chemical Characterization of Plant-Based Biochar
9.4 Biochar for Heavy Metal Removal
9.5 Biochar for Dye Removal
9.6 Biochar for Fluoride Removal
9.7 Biochar for Persistent Organic Pollutant Removal
9.8 Biochar for Other Pollutant Removal
9.9 Biochar for Soil Treatment/Improvement
9.10 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References

Chapter 10: A Review on Ferrate(VI) and Photocatalysis as Oxidation Processes for the Removal of Organic Pollutants in Water and Wastewater

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Ferrate(VI)
10.3 Photocatalysis
10.4 Combination of Photocatalysis (UV/TiO₂) and Ferrate(VI)
10.5 Conclusions
References

Chapter 11: Agro-Industrial Wastes Composites as Novel Adsorbents

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Material and Methods
11.3 Results and Discussion
11.4 Conclusion
References

Chapter 12: A Review on the Removal of Nitrate from Water by Adsorption on Organic–Inorganic Hybrid Biocomposites

12.1 Introduction
12.2 Adsorbents for the Removal of Nitrate from Water
12.3 Models for Adsorption Process
12.4 Column Study
12.5 Conclusion
Nomenclatures
References

Chapter 13: Nitrate Removal and Nitrogen Sequestration from Polluted Waters Using Zero-Valent Iron Nanoparticles Synthesized under Ultrasonic Irradiation

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Materials and Methods
13.3 Results and Discussion
13.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Effects of arsenic.
Figure 1.2 Arsenic methylation pathway in the human body (a): Arsenate reductase or purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP), (b): Arsenite methyl transferase (As3MT), (c): Glutathione S-transferase omega 1 or 2 (GSTO1, GSTO2), and (d): Arsenite methyl transferase (As3MT), MMA(V): Monomethylarsenic acid, MMA(III): Monomethylarsonous acid, DMA(V): Dimethylarsenic acid.
Figure 1.3 Toxicity trends of arsenic.
Figure 1.4 Representation of sulfhydryl-arsenic bonding.
Figure 1.5 Detoxification of arsenite oxy anions by lipoic acid.
Figure 1.6 Excreted arsenite chelate complex.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Flow chart showing the process carried in textile industry.
Figure 2.2 A description of the individual operations that are performed on cotton textile and the main pollutants that result from each operation.
Figure 2.3 The chemical composition of man-made dyes mostly used in the textile industry.
Figure 2.4 The mechanisms of light induced degradation of dyes (a) photocatalysis, (b) dye sensitization followed by dye degradation, (c) dye sensitization followed by reduction of a second molecule, and (d) degradation by coupled semiconductors under visible light [10].
Figure 2.5 Mechanism for reduction of azo dye.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Effect of pH on adsorption of tartrazine dye onto polyaniline-coated sawdust (PANI/SD) [154] and PANI/Al₂O₃ composite [194].
Figure 3.2 Adsorption capacity of different adsorbents for methylene blue dye: polyaniline nickel ferrite nanocomposite (PNFN) [184], Polyaniline-coated sawdust of wood (PCSD1) [185], Polyaniline nanotube base (PNB) [186], Polyaniline-coated sawdust of walnut (PCSD2) [193].
Figure 3.3 Variation in adsorption of congo red dye by HCl and PTSA-doped polyaniline (HCl/PTSA-doped PANI) [210], Polyaniline/chitosan composite (Pn/Ch Composite) [167], polyaniline [211] polyaniline momtmorrillonite composite (PANi-MMT composite) [212].
Figure 3.4 Adsorption capacity of PANI-coated sawdust for different dyes: Eosin Y (EY) [158], methylene blue (MB) [193], methyl orange (MO) [187], reactive orange 16 (RO16) [189], reactive orange 4 (RO4) [215], acid violet 49 (AV49) [139], direct green 6 (DG6) [189].

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Copper and cadmium sorption on the modified and pristine biomass at different controlled pHs during the adsorption process. (Reprinted from [15] with permission, Copyright © 2005 American Chemical Society.)
Figure 4.2 Diagram of U(VI) biosorption mechanisms onto the Pseudomonas putida @ chitosan bead (PICB). (Reprinted from [62] with permission from Elsevier.)
Figure 4.3 Schematic representation of several mechanisms of heavy metal translocation, sequestration, and uptake in living (Left), as well as, nonliving (Right, brown shaded) microalgae; including Meⁿ⁺-Metal ion, L-liquid(Meⁿ⁺ + L represents metal ion in liquid); Metal-ion transporters (such as NRAMP, CTR, ZIP, and FTR); Phytochelatinbio-synthesis pathway, PC complexes, and enzymes involved in the PC synthesis (GCS-glutamyl–cysteinyl synthase, GS-Glutathione synthase, PCS-phytochelatin synthase); AA-Amino Acids; OA-Organic Acids; LMWPC-MeC-Low Molecular Weight Phytochelatin Metal Ion Complexes; HMWPC-MeC-High Molecular Weight Phytochelatin MetalIon Complexes; MTP-Metallothionein Protein; SA-surface adsorption; P-Precipitation; IE-Ion Exchange; CC-Complexation and Chelation and PD-Passive diffusion. (Reprinted from [17] with permission from Elsevier.)
Figure 4.4 Probable mechanism for sorption and desorption of uranium(VI) with Penicillium chrysogenum on activated silica.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Eh-pH diagram of chromium [5].
Figure 5.2 Speciation diagram of Cr (VI) [7].
Figure 5.3 (a) Development of positive charges on the surface of adsorbent at pH < 7.0 and electrostatic attraction of negatively charged Cr (VI) species. (b) Competition between CrO₄^2– species and OH^– ions at pH > 7.0. (c) Development of surface positive charges at pH < pH_ZPC of the adsorbent causing electrostatic attraction of Cr (VI) species for the surface of adsorbent. (d) Development of negative surface charges at pH > pH_ZPC causing electrostatic repulsion of Cr (VI) species from the surface of adsorbent.
Figure 5.4 Adsorption of Cr (VI) onto natural clay minerals.
Figure 5.5 Road map showing increasing order of adsorption capcpities of clay minerals, modified clay minerals, biomass and industrial wastes for remediation of Cr (VI).

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 (a) prokaryotic cells and (b) Eukaryotic (E.M.Armstrong, 2001).
Figure 6.2 Binary fission and cell separation.
Figure 6.3 Structure of simple amino-acid (glycine).
Figure 6.4 Schematic diagram of deamination of sulfur amino-acid (cysteine).
Figure 6.5 Dissimmilaterity nitrate.
Figure 6.6 Flowsheet diagram of A/O process.
Figure 6.7 Flowsheet diagram of Phostrip process.
Figure 6.8 Trickling filter for wastewater treatment
Figure 6.9 Activated sludge process flowsheet.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Schematic overview of plant-based biochar applications.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Road map of the chapter.
Figure 10.2 Spectra of ferrate(VI) in Milli-Q water.
Figure 10.3 Speciation of ferrate(VI) [31].

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 (a) Structure of Congo Red; (b) biomasses screening for Congo Red dye adsorption (sugarcane baggase, peanut hull, cotton stick, and rice bran).
Figure 11.2 CR dye adsorption on composites (bagasse with polyaniline, starch, pyrrole, chitoson/aniline and chitoson/pyrrole) and baggase native rice biomass; A: Effect of pH; B: Effect of adsorbent dose.
Figure 11.3 CR dye adsorption on composites (bagasse with polyaniline, starch, pyrrole, chitoson/aniline and chitoson/pyrrole) and baggase native rice biomass; A: Effect of contact time; B: Effect of CR initial concentration; and C: Effect of temperature.
Figure 11.4 (A–F) Pseudo-first-order plots (log) for CR dye adsorption on composites (baggase with polyaniline, starch, pyrrole, chitoson/aniline and chitoson/pyrrole) and native bagasse biomass.
Figure 11.5 (A–F) Pseudo-second-order plots for CR dye adsorption on composites (baggase with polyaniline, starch, pyrrole, chitoson/aniline and chitoson/pyrrole) and native bagasse biomass.
Figure 11.6 (A-F) Intraparticle diffusion model plots for CR adsorption on composites (bagasse with polyaniline, starch, pyrrole, chitoson/aniline and chitoson/pyrrole) and native bagasse biomass.
Figure 11.7 (A–F) Langmuir isotherm model curves (Ce/qe (g/L) versus Ce (mg/L)) CR adsorption on composites (bagasse with polyaniline, starch, pyrrole, chitoson/aniline and chitoson/pyrrole) and native bagasse biomass.
Figure 11.8 (A–F) Freundlich isotherm model curves CR adsorption on composites (bagasse with polyaniline, starch, pyrrole, chitoson/aniline and chitoson/pyrrole) and native bagasse biomass.
Figure 11.9 ln Kc versus 1/T (Arrhenius plot) for thermodynamic study.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Preparation of ChAl composite.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 XRD patterns of the samples prepared under liquid-phase reduction (nZVI^LPR) and under a combination of liquid-phase reduction-ultrasonic irradiation (nZVI^UI).
Figure 13.2 TEM images and SAED patterns of the prepared samples without (a and c) and with (b and d) ultrasonic irradiation.
Figure 13.3 Nitrogen Adsorption-desorption isotherms of the nZV^{I and} nZVI^LPR samples.
Figure 13.4 S/N ratios of the reaction time effect on the nitrate removal (a) and the S/N ratios belonging to different types of nanomaterials used including nZVI^LPR and nZVI^UI (b). The circles represent the optimal levels of the factors.
Figure 13.5 S/N ratios of effects of the reaction time (min) (a) and the types of nanomaterials (including nZVI^LPR and nZVI^UI) (b) on the nitrite production as a possible end-product of the nitrate removal by nano zero-valent iron particles.
Figure 13.6 Raman Spectrum of the nitrate solution after 120 min of treatment with nZVI ^UI.
Figure 13.7 Nitrate removal by the sample prepared under ultrasonic irradiation (nZVI^UI) (a). (b) indicates the percentage of the nitrogen converted to the final products. The lines and represent the conversion (%) of the initial nitrate to ammonium ion and to nitrite, respectively, measured in the reaction solution. The line represents the conversion (%) of the initial nitrate to nitrogen which was calculated based on the shares of other end-products of the reaction.
Figure 13.8 XRD (a) and EDX (b) patterns of the synthesized struvite.
Figure 13.9 SEM images of the struvite prepared in this study.

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Techniques utilized for arsenic removal.
Table 1.2 Adsorbents utilized for arsenic removal.

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of dye treatment technologies.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Different effluent treatment techniques and their advantages and disadvantages [71].
Table 3.2 Different adsorbents used for the dye removal from industrial effluent.
Table 3.3 Effect of initial dye concentration on the adsorption using different adsorbents.
Table 3.4 Effect of pH on the adsorption of dyes on different adsorbents.
Table 3.5 Percentage adsorption of different dyes with the varying adsorbent dosage.
Table 3.6 Work done by different researchers on polyaniline as adsorbent.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 The maximum adsorption capacity and experimental condition used for the removal of heavy metals various algae-based biosorbent.
Table 4.2 The maximum adsorption capacity and experimental condition used for the removal of heavy metals various bacteria-based biosorbent.
Table 4.3 The maximum adsorption capacity and experimental condition used for the removal of heavy metals various fungi-based biosorbent.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Maximum adsorption capacity, optimum adsorption conditions like pH, temperature, initial Cr(VI) concentration, adsorbent dose, fitted isotherm, kinetic model, thermodynamic parameters and mechanism of adsorption of clay minerals.
Table 5.2 Maximum adsorption capacity, optimum adsorption conditions like pH, temperature, initial Cr(VI) concentration, adsorbent dose, fitted isotherm, kinetic model, thermodynamic parameters and mechanism of adsorption of biomass.
Table 5.3 Maximum adsorption capacity, optimum adsorption conditions like pH, temperature, initial Cr(VI) concentration, adsorbent dose, fitted isotherm, kinetic model, thermodynamic parameters and mechanism of adsorption of industrial wastes.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Number of metal hyperaccumulator plants.
Table 7.2 Endemic and native vegetation species studied in terms of heavy metals.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Reported strategies of enzyme immobilization and effect of immobilization on enzymes.
Table 8.2 Advantages and drawbacks of the four basic immobilization methods.
Table 8.3 Bacterial strains, isolated from different sources, indicating lipolytic activities for lipids.
Table 8.4 Optimized conditions for some lipolytic bacterial strains.
Table 8.5 Reported dyes decolorization efficiency of free and immobilized enzymatic systems.
Table 8.6 Industrial wastes and microbial degradation.
Table 8.7 Application of enzymes in different industrial sectors.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Plant material used for biochar production.
Table 9.2 Physicochemical characteristics of plant-derived biochar.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Redox potentials for oxidants/disinfectants used in water and wastewater treatment [26–29].
Table 10.2 Efficiency and operational conditions of electrochemical production of ferrate(VI).
Table 10.3 Spectrophotometric methods for ferrate(VI) determination in water [29, 40, 45].
Table 10.4 Apparent second-order rate constants (k_app) of the oxidation of PPCPs and EDCs by Fe(VI) at room temperature.
Table 10.5 Stoichiometry of oxidation of organic molecules by Fe(VI) at room temperature.
Table 10.6 Removal of PPCPs and EDCs spiked in real wastewater by Fe(VI).
Table 10.7 Hailsham North Wastewater Treatment Plant of Southern Water Ltd of UK – Pilot scale – performance at 0.03 mg of online and electrochemically produced Fe(VI)/L [36].
Table 10.8 Performance of commercial and electrochemically produced (using NaOH and KOH) Fe(VI) – samples taken from Wastewater Treatment Plant Degremont, in Culiacan city, in Mexico [37].
Table 10.9 Performance (in removal of DOC) of Fe(VI) in comparison with ferric sulfate [24].
Table 10.10 Performance of Fe(VI) in comparison with aluminum and ferric sulfate [94].
Table 10.11 Estimated cost of different water treatment processes [115].
Table 10.12 Comparison of κ value in m²/m³ for different types of reactors [116].
Table 10.13 Comparison of reactor specifications of CAR, TLR, and MTR[114].
Table 10.14 Common semiconductors used in photocatalysis [122].
Table 10.15 Extracts used as natural dyes for dye-sensitization [159].
Table 10.16 Photo catalytic degradation of Phenol with different modified photocatalysts [167].
Table 10.17 Pollutants are enabled to Fe(VI)-enhanced photo catalytic oxidation.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Adsorption capacities of various composites for the adsorption of dyes and present investigation (polyaniline, starch, polypyrrole, chitoson/aniline and chitoson/pyrrole composites).
Table 11.2 Adsorption capacities of various composites for the adsorption of metal ions and present investigation (polyaniline, starch, polypyrrole, chitoson/aniline and chitoson/pyrrole composites).
Table 11.3 Adsorption capacities of various composites for the adsorption of ions and organic compounds.
Table 11.4 Thermodynamics parameters of congo red dye adsorption on native and composites adsorbents.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Nitrate removal.
Table 12.2 Summary of adsorbents for nitrate removal.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Recent applications of different methods for the removal of nitrate from polluted waters.
Table 13.2 L8 orthogonal array of experiments.
Table 13.3 Signal to noise ratio, factor effect and ranking for each factor.

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Advanced Materials for Wastewater Treatment

Edited by

Shahid-ul-Islam

This edition first published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-40776-8

Preface

Water is an essential component for living organisms on planet earth and its pollution is one of the critical global environmental issues today. The influx of significant quantities of organic and inorganic waste, sediments, surfactants, synthetic dyes, sewage, and heavy metals into all types of water bodies has been increasing substantially over the past century due to rapid industrialization, population growth, agricultural activities, and other geological and environmental changes. These pollutants are very dangerous and are posing serious threat to us all.

Currently, a number of methods including ion exchange, membrane filtration, advanced oxidation, biological degradation, photocatalytic degradation, electro-coagulation, and adsorption are in operation for removing or minimizing these wastes. This book on Advanced Materials for Wastewater Treatment brings together innovative methodologies and research strategies that remove toxic effluents from wastewaters through fourteen important chapters written by leading scientists working in this field. I have no doubt that readers of this book will benefit from its comprehensive coverage of the current literature, up-to-date overviews of all aspects of toxic chemical remediation, including the role of nanocomposites. Together they showcase in a very lucid manner an array of technologies that complement the traditional as well as advanced treatment practices of textile effluents. I would also like to thank all the authors who contributed chapters to this book and provided their valuable ideas and knowledge. I am also very thankful to the publishers and, in particular, Martin Scrivener, for their generous cooperation at every stage of the book’s compilation and production.

Shahid-ul-Islam
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IITD),
Hauz Khas, New Delhi, India
August 2017