Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Dedication

Introduction

Acknowledgments

Part I: Climatic Paradox

Chapter 1: Climatic Paradox
1. Historic Temperatures of Early Earth
2. Concepts by Some of Global Warming
3. Earth’s Historic Temperature Charts
4. Misuse of Temperature Charts
5. Use of Paleoclimatology to Estimate Prehistoric Temperatures
6. Use of the Oxygen Isotope Ratio to Estimate Historic Temperatures
7. Historic Temperature Charts for the Past 4.6 BY
8. Glacial Periods and Interglacial Periods (4.5 to 0.54 BY AGO)
9. Historic Temperature Record of the Past 540 MY
10. Today’s Temperature Charts
11. The Sun—a Primary Source of Energy
12. Physical Aspects of the Sun
13. Solar Irradiation Reaching the Earth
14. The Sun’s Energy
15. Energy Received by the Earth from the Sun
16. The Paradox Reviewed
Chapter 2: Adiabatic Theory
1. Troposphere
2. Features of the Earth’s Atmosphere
3. Development of an Adiabatic Equation
4. Development of the Adiabatic Equation
5. Earth’s Troposphere Model
6. Application of Adiabatic Equation to the Planet Venus
Chapter 3: The Earth’s Synoptic Activities
1. Greenhouse Effect Adiabatic Theory
2. Model of Heat Transfer in the Troposphere

Part II: Development of the Hydrosphere

Chapter 4: Development of Earth’s Hydrosphere
1. Hydrosphere of the Primordial Earth
2. Formation of the Hydrosphere

Part III: Development of the Earth’s Atmosphere

Chapter 5: Earth’s Historic Atmospheres
1. Earth’s Primordial Atmosphere
2. Earth’s First Atmosphere (Hadean time—4.56 to 4.0 BY ago)
3. Earth’s Second Atmosphere (Archean time, 4.0 to 2.5 BY ago)
4. The Earth’s Future Atmosphere
Chapter 6: Nitrogen in Earth’s Atmosphere
1. Origin of Earth’s Atmospheric Nitrogen
2. Estimate of the Earth’s Volume of Organic-Nitrogen Sediments
Chapter 7: Development of Free Oxygen in Earth’s Atmosphere
1. Oxygen
2. History of Free Oxygen in Earth’s Atmosphere
Chapter 8: Development of Methane in Earth’s Atmosphere
1. Methane the Gas
2. Historic Levels of Methane in the Earth’s Atmosphere
3. Monitoring of Methane Gas Emissions
Chapter 9: The Effect of the Greenhouse Gases
1. The Greenhouse Gases
2. The Greenhouse Effect
3. Effect of Carbon Dioxide on Temperature Distribution
Chapter 10: Development of Carbon Dioxide in Earth’s Atmosphere
1. Carbon Dioxide
2. The Carbon Cycle
3. Mass of Carbon in the Earth’s Crust
4. Mass of Carbon in the Earth’s Mantle
5. Historic Content of Carbon Dioxide in the Earth’s Atmosphere
6. Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere
Chapter 11: Ozone in the Earth’s Atmosphere
1. Properties of Ozone
2. Ozone Layer as the “Earth’s Shield”
3. Ozone – Methane Reaction
4. Concluding Remarks
Chapter 12: Evolution of Atmospheric Composition and Pressure
1. Partial Pressure of Atmospheric Gases

Part IV: Various Factors Affecting the Evolution of the Earth’s Climate

Chapter 13: Earth’s Orbital Distance from the Sun
1. Effect of Gravity on Earth’s Orbital Paths
2. Earth’s Orbital Path About the Sun
Chapter 14: Climatalogical Effect of Continental Drift
1. Continental Drift’s Effect on the Earth’s Precession Angle
2. Latitudinal Temperature Contrast on Earth’s Surface
Chapter 15: Earth’s Future Climate
Conclusions
References and Bibliography
Author Index
Subject Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Development of life on Earth for the past 4.5 BY. (After pbhslifescience, https://pbhslifescience.wordpress.com/2016/11/04/evolution-slides-1.)
Figure 1.2 Schematic 4.5 BY Earth chart. (Original data from Frakes (1979); in: Watts, https://Wattsvpwiththat.com/2014/09/08/Monday.)
Figure 1.3 A climatic paradox: The sun luminosity increases over time, whereas Earth’s temperature gets cooler. Curve 1 – average isotopic water temperature that is sea-flint forming in, also describes the average temperature for the global, near-bottom of sea floor ocean water. The dots are δ¹⁸O values for the sea-flint (after Schopf, 1982). Curve 2 – temperature of an absolutely black body at the distance of Earth-from-sun, which describes the sun’s luminosity.
Figure 1.4 Historic deep ocean temperatures based on the 18O isotopic shift in the benthos fauna of carbonates. (isotope data from Zachos et al., 2001.)
Figure 1.5 Temperature chart for the past 540 MY based upon several methods of temperature inference from various researchers. The horizontal time scale is a mixture of linear and logarithmic scales. Note that the Earth has been generally warmer in the past than it is today. (Data from U.S. DOE; in: http://theconversation.com/sudden-global-warming-55m-years-ago-was-much-like-today-35505.)
Figure 1.6 Temperature chart of Greenland interglacial temperatures for the last 10,000 years as determined from ice-sheet cores. (After Lappi, 2010.)
Figure 1.7 Temperature fluctuations over the past one million years. Global reconstructed temperature. (After, R. Britanja and R.S.W van der Waal, “Global 3Ma temperature, sea level, and ice volume reconstructions.” National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, August 14, 2008. https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/study/11933 (Accessed April 5, 2016.)
Figure 1.8 Temperature chart, 22-year history of UAH satellite-based temperature measurements of the global lower troposphere. (After Spenser, 2017.)
Figure 1.9 Solar cycle variation of sunspots, irradiance and solar flare index. Solar flare index is a measure of the solar radio flux per unit frequency at a wavelength of 10.7 cm. The vertical scales for each quantity have been adjusted to permit over plotting on the same vertical axis as TSI. Temporal variations of all quantities are tightly locked in phase, but the degree of correlation in amplitudes is variable to some degree. (After Wikipedia, 2017; in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cycle.)
Figure 1.10 Variation of the (1) ratio of solar irradiation to the present day and (2) to the sun’s luminosity; and (3) the sun’s radius with time. (After Ribes, 2010.)
Figure 1.11 Temperature chart showing the annual mean surface temperatures in the contiguous United States between 1880 and 2006 (NCDC, 2007). The slope of the least-squares trend line for this 127-year record is 0.5 °C per century. (After Robinson et al., 2007.)
Figure 1.12 Annual mean surface temperatures in the contiguous United States between 1880 and 2006 (NCDC, 2007). The slope of the least-squares trend line for this 127-year record is 0.5 °C per century. (After Robinson et al., 2007.)
Figure 1.13 Absorption of sun’s energy by the Earth’s atmosphere. Of the 340 watts per square meter of solar energy that falls on the Earth, 29% is reflected into space, primarily by clouds, but also by other bright surfaces and the atmosphere itself. About 23% of incoming energy is absorbed in the atmosphere by atmospheric gases, dust, and other particles. The remaining 48% is absorbed at the surface. (After NASA illustration by Robert Simmon. Astronaut photographISS013-E-8948.)

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Temperature distribution vs. elevation (altitude) in the Earth’s atmosphere. T_e is the Earth’s effective temperature; T_s is the average Earth’s temperature normalized for sea level; ∆T is the greenhouse effect value (T_s – T_e); T_bb is the absolute black body temperature at the Earth from Sun distance. (After Atmosphere of Earth, 1988.)
Figure 2.2 Atmospheric pressure vs. elevation (calculated using Eq. 2.1 and from the temperature vs. elevation (altitude) in Figure 2.1.).
Figure 2.3 Various methods of energy transfer in the troposphere. (After UCAR, 2018, https://www.COVCAR.edu/learn/1_1_1.htm.)
Figure 2.4 Flow diagram of the temperature transformation in the troposphere. T_bb is the absolutely black body temperature, K, at the distance of the Earth from the Sun; T_e is the effective Earth’s temperature, K; T_s is the near-Earth temperature, K; p_s is the atmospheric pressure; p_o pressure unit; b is the scaling factor; α is the adiabatic exponent; c_p is the air heat absorbing capacity at constant pressure; c_v is the air heat capacity at constant volume; R is the gas constant; m is the molar weight of the air gas mixture.
Figure 2.5 Balance of heat transfer in the Earth’s troposphere. The loss with convective movements of air mass is 69%, moisture condensation adds another 25% and only 8% is the fraction of the radiation heat transfer. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011.)
Figure 2.6 Temperature distribution in Earth’s troposphere and stratosphere (Curve 4) and in the Venus troposphere (Curve 2 at 30° latitude and Curve 1 at 75° latitude) compared to theoretical temperature distributions (Curves 5 and 3) plotted in compliance with the greenhouse effect adiabatic theory, Eq. 2.25.
Figure 2.7 Averaged temperature distributions in the Earth’s troposphere using Eq. 2.25: Curve 1 – Earth’s troposphere with a nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere; Curve 2 – Earth’s atmosphere composed totally of carbon dioxide; and Curve 3 – Earth’s atmosphere composed totally of methane. (After Chilingar et al., 2009, p. 1210, figure 2.)

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Near-surface average air temperature versus latitude. Solid lines, after Khromova and Petrosyants (2001). Curve 1 – January; Curve 2 – July; and Curve 3 annual average temperatures. Dashed lines (Antarctic data) are average temperatures (obtained from “The Atlas of Antarctic”, 1966), for the ice cover dome at the Antarctic pole (80 °S). This data was from well observations in 1964 of the annual average temperature (-60 °C) by Sorokhtin and A. Kapitsa. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 13.10, p. 490.)
Figure 3.2 Synoptic process activity vs. latitude calculated using Eq. 2–25: Curve 1 – January; Curve 2 – July; Curve 3 – annual average. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, Figure 11.10, p. 497.)
Figure 3.3 Average solar insolation energy and synoptic processes energy flow (105 erg/cm²/sec) in the Earth’s troposphere vs. latitude. Curve 1 – intensity of the insulation at the Earth’s surface. Curve 2 – intensity of synoptic processes in the troposphere. Curve 3 – average solar insolation intensity. Curve 4 – average intensity of the synoptic processes.
Figure 3.4 Comparison of temperature distributions plotted using Eq. 2.25 for a dry, transparent (grad T_dry) and humid, IR radiation–absorbing the Earth’s troposphere (T_wet). For all other conditions being equal, the near-surface temperature of a humid, absorbing troposphere is always somewhat lower than the near-surface temperature of a dry transparent atmosphere (in this particular example the temperature difference reaches 4.7 °C).

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Evolution of convecting mantle’s chemical composition in relative concentrations (the concentration of a given compound in the primordial Earth’s matter is taken as one: Curve 1 – SiO₂, TiO₂, MgO, CaO, AlO₃; Curve 2 – H₂O; Curve 3 – K₂O; Curve 4 – Ni and other siderophilic and chalcophilic elements and compounds; Curve 5 – FeO; Curve 6 – Fe; Curve 7 – U; Curve 8 – Th; and Curve 9 – Fe₃O₄. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 4.15, p. 144.)
Figure 4.2 Evolution of major petrogenic elements and compounds in the convecting mantle. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 4.16, p. 145.)
Figure 4.3 Olivine basalt solidus curve versus pressure (content) of water dissolved in the basalt melt. When basalts crystallize, the water dissolved in the basalt melts is released. (After Joly 1929; in: Sorokhtin et al., 2011, p. 422, figure 11.1.)
Figure 4.4 Rate of change in the Earth’s tectonic parameter z determining the rate of the basalt melts surface eruptions and the mantle degassing rate (the dashed line represents core separation time). (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, Figure 11.2, p. 423.)
Figure 4.5 Earth tectonic parameter, z, controlling the mantle magmatic activity products accumulation rate and the mass of the substances degassed from the mantle: the dashed line represents the time core separation ends. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, Figure 11.3, p. 423.)
Figure 4.6 Gradual increase of the mantle mass in the Archaean time due to the expansion of the Earth’s matter differentiation zone and in its mass in Proterozoic and Phanerozoic due to the core growth. Dashed lines are the times when the core matter separation began about 4 BY ago and when a high-density iron-oxide core separated in the center of Earth about 2.6 BY ago. Since the origin of the Earth 4.6 BY ago and through the very end of Archaean time, the primordial Earth’s matter saturated with ore elements was preserved within Earth. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 6.6, p. 208.)
Figure 4.7 Earth structure evolution: (A) the young Earth and moon formation; (B–F) consecutive stages of the Earth’s core separation and formation; (G) present-day Earth. The dashes represent the primordial matter; solid black is iron and its oxides melts; white is the Archaean depleted mantle impoverished in iron, its oxides, and siderophilic elements; the dots are the current-type mantle; and the boxes are continental massifs. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 4.1, p. 117.)
Figure 4.8 Continental crust mass growth: (1) authors’ version and (2) Taylor and McLennan (1985) curve. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 7.7, p. 250.)
Figure 4.9 Evolution in the positions of the oceanic and continental surfaces compared with the average mid-oceanic ridge crests stand level: Curve 1 – average depth of the oceanic depressions; Curve 2 – mid-oceanic ridge crests stand level; Curve 3 – world-ocean surface level; Curve 4 – average continent stand level (relative to mid-oceanic ridge crests stand level); and Curve 5 – ocean surface position in the case of no water dissociation on iron melts in the Archaean time under the reaction: Fe + H₂O = FeO + H₂ + 5.84 kcal/mol. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 11.6, p. 428.)
Figure 4.10 Generalized model of the oceanic crust evolution. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 7.1, p. 243.)
Figure 4.11 Water accumulation in the Earth’s hydrosphere: Curve 1 – total mass of water degassed from the mantle; Curve 2 – oceanic water mass; Curves 3 & 4 – water mass bonded in the oceanic and continental crust; and Curves 5 & 6 – water mass degassed form the mantle and the oceanic water mass under a hypothetical scenario of no water dissociation in the Earth’s matter differentiation zones in the Archaean time according to the reaction Eq. 4.5. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 11.4, p. 427.)
Figure 4.12 Mantle-to-hydrosphere water degassing rate: Curve 1 – accounting for water dissociation in the Earth’s matter differentiation zones in the Archaean time and Curve 2 not accounting for such dissociation. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 11.5, p. 427.)
Figure 4.13 Energy expression of the Earth’s tectonic activity (vertical dashed line denotes the core formation time). (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 5.17, p. 187.)
Figure 4.14 Evolution of oceanic lithospheric plates and their average thickness. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 7.3, p. 245.)
Figure 4.15 Image of the continental crust formation in Archaean time. (After Sorokhtin et al., figure 7.5, p. 247.)
Figure 4.16 Average stand (elevation) of continental massifs over the rift zones in the Archaean time and over the ocean surface in Proterozoic and Mesozoic. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 7.10, p. 353.)
Figure 4.17 Evolution of the structure of the continental plates: Area I – continental crust; Area II – continental lithosphere; and Area III – sublithospheric (hot) mantle. Curve 1 – surface of the continents; Curve 2 – continental crust base (Mohorovicic boundary); and Curve 3 – base of the continental lithosphere. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 7.9, p. 252.)

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Variation of the composition of the Earth’s atmosphere with time. (After Scientific Psychic, 2017.)
Figure 5.2 The Earth’s tectonic activity as measured by depth of heat flow from the mantle. Curve 1 – average for Earth as a whole. Curve 2 – tectonic activity within a wide ring belt of the Archaean Earth crust formation above the differentiation zone of Earth’s matter. Dashed line corresponds to the time of Earth’s core separation.
Figure 5.3 Evolution of the composition of the Earth’s atmosphere and its pressure with time (dashed line is the atmosphere pressure assuming the absence of bacterial nitrogen consumption).

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Comparison of composition of Venus, Earth and Mars atmospheres. (After Earth Science, 2014.)
Figure 6.2 Today’s nitrogen cycle. (After AP Biology, 2017.)
Figure 6.3 Biomass evolution in the Earth’s oceans. The authors predict that the biomass will decline to 0 in 600 MY in the future due to the degassing from the mantle in substantial amounts of abiogenic oxygen along with the associated greenhouse effect (Sorokhtin, 1974; Sorokhtin and Ushakov, 2002). (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 12.7, p. 447.)
Figure 6.4 Evolution of the Earth’s atmospheric nitrogen partial pressure: Curve 1 nitrogen of young Earth’s primordial atmosphere. Curve 2 – nitrogen degassed from the mantle. Curve 3 – pressure of total body of atmospheric nitrogen. Curve 4 – mass of nitrogen removed from atmosphere by nitrogen-consuming bacteria (recalculated using pressure).
Figure 6.5 Schematic of Nitrogen cycle. (After Wikipedia, 2017), https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Nitrogen_Cycle.svg/1200px-Nitrogen_Cycle.svg.png)

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Today’s oxygen cycle showing three main reservoirs of storage for oxygen: (1) atmosphere, (2) biological, and (3) Earth’s crust. (After CMU, 2003.)
Figure 7.2 Development of free oxygen in the atmosphere. (After Govindjee and Shevela, 2011.)
Figure 7.3 Buildup of partial pressure of oxygen in the Earth’s atmosphere over time. Solid and dashed lines represent the range of the estimates, whereas time is measured in billions of years ago (BY ago). Stage-1 – 3.85 – 2.45 BY ago, practically no oxygen in the atmosphere. Stage 2 – 2.45 – 1.85 BY ago, oxygen produced is absorbed in the oceans and incorporated in seabed rock. Stage 3 – 1.85 – 0.85 BY ago: more oxygen is produced than can be dissolved in the ocean water (oxygen starts to gas out of the oceans and is absorbed by the land surfaces and enriches the Earth’s atmosphere). Stages 4 and 5 – 0.85 BY ago – today, oxygen enriches the atmosphere. (Modified after Oxygenation-atm.svg: Heinrich D. Holland derivative work; in: Wikipedia, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth.)
Figure 7.4 Oxygen partial pressure evolution in the Earth’s atmosphere (logarithmic scale). In Pre-Cambrian time, oxygen was generated only by the oceanic biota. In the Phanerozoic time additional oxygen was generated by dry–land vegetation. It is assumed that oxygen generation by Archaean prokaryotes (cyanobacteria) was by one order of magnitude lower than by Proterozoic eukaryote microalgae.
Figure 7.5 Atmospheric free oxygen partial pressure distribution over the last 1 BY (the present-day oxygen partial-pressure is 0.2315 atm.). (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 12.10, p. 453.)
Figure 7.6 Theoretical accumulation rate of the Pre-Cambrian iron-ore formations. Curve 1 – Total rate of iron ore formation, 10⁹ t/year. Curve 2 – Metallic iron concentration in the convecting mantle, %. Curve 3 – Ocean surface position relative to the average standing level of mid-oceanic range ridges, km.
Figure 7.7 Major microfossil remains distribution in the Archaean and Early Proterozoic time (Semikhatov et al., 1999). Common in the Archaean were mostly singular globular and filamentary nanobacteria (1, 2), trichomes and (3) possibly cyanobacteria filaments (4). The diversity of Early Proterozoic microfossils extends from cyanobacteria (4); (5–7), coccoid forms (8,9), trichomes (10) to impressions of large and morphologically complex (11–17), spiral (18), tape-like (19), round and globular (20) forms. (Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 15.3, p. 533.)
Figure 7.8 “Tree of life”. The evolution of life at the Proterozoic/Phanerozoic time boundary was like a biological explosion. (Attenborough, D., Life on Earth: A Natural History (1984); in: Sorokhtin et al., 2011, fig. 15-4, p. 534.)
Figure 7.9 Averaged evolution of Earth’s climates at a constant Earth’s precession angle of ψ = 24°. Curve 1 – Average Earth’s surface temperature at sea level estimated using Eq. 2.27. Curve 2 – Effective Earth’s temperature using Eq. 2.25. Curve 3 – Earth’s atmospheric greenhouse effect using Eq. 9.1. Curve 4 – The absolute black body temperature from Eq. 2.3 at a distance of Earth to the Sun describing the increase, with time, of the Sun’s luminosity, S. Curve 5 – Average Earth’s temperature assuming that there was no nitrogen consumption by bacteria.
Figure 7.10 Evolution of the Earth’s atmospheric composition and pressure evolution with time. The dashed line is the atmospheric pressure in the absence of bacterial consumption of nitrogen.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Today’s global methane cycle. (After Curtis, T., 2015 from C B Dunkerton, as estimated in Ar5; in: Skeptical Science, 2015.)
Figure 8.2 Carbon isotopic shifts in organic matter versus epochs of the Precambrian iron-ore formations. Upper diagram: δ¹³C_org and δ¹³ C_carb, distributions in the Earth’s evolution (Schidlowski, 1987). Lower diagram. The two most outstanding Precambrian iron-ore formation deposition epochs clearly correspond with the two local minima on the envelop of the minimum δ¹³C_org values. Unfortunately, the upper diagram does not include their complementary positive δ¹³ C_carb anomalies which reached +8 to +11‰ PDB in the Early Proterozoic time (Semikhatov et al., 1999).
Figure 8.3 Changing of the number of stromatolithic formations in Archaean (a) and Proterozoic (b). (After Semikhatov et al., 1999.) N represents the number of formations with stromatoliths. The Archaean stromatoliths are much smaller in mass than the Early Proterozoic ones (“Paleoproterozoic” by Semikhatov). (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, p. 455, figure 12.12.)
Figure 8.4 Tidal energy release: Curve 1 – in Earth; Curve 2 – in mantle; and Curve 3 – in hydrosphere. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, fig. 5–10, p. 178.)
Figure 8.5 Earth structure evolution: (a) the young Earth and moon formation; (b–f) consecutive stages of the Earth’s core separation and formation; (g) present-day Earth. The dashes represent the primordial matter; solid black is iron and its oxides melts; white is the Archaean time depleted mantle impoverished in iron, its oxides, and siderophilic elements; the dots are the current-type mantle; and the boxes are continental massifs. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, fig. 4.1, p. 117.)
Figure 8.6 Evolution of the areas of the oceans and continents with time. (Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 7.4, p. 245.)
Figure 8.7 Evolution of major petrogenic elements and compounds in the convecting mantle. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 4.16, p. 145.)
Figure 8.8 Abiogenic methane generation in the oceanic crust plotted using Eq. 8.7 compared with the carbon isotopic shifts in organic matter. Upper diagram: δ¹³C_org and δ¹³C_carb distributions versus time (Schidlowski, 1987); lower diagram: abiogenic methane generation rate. Two most outstanding Precambrian iron-ore formation deposition and methane accumulation epochs clearly correspond with the two local minima on the envelop of the minimum δ¹³C_org values. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 12.11, p. 456.)
Figure 8.9 Atmospheric methane partial pressure versus time: Curve 1 – methane generation in the oceanic crust and Curve 2 – total methane generation in the oceanic crust and on the continents. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 12.14, p. 459.)

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Schematic illustration showing the distribution of energy carrying light waves from the Sun to the Earth. (After Lightle, 2008.)
Figure 9.2 Schematic of how clouds affect cooling and warming of the Earth. (After NASA, 2017.)
Figure 9.3 Wave length radiation absorptivity for various gases of the atmosphere. An absorptivity of zero means no absorption, while a value of one means complete absorption. The dominant gas absorbers for infrared radiation are water vapor and carbon dioxide, oxygen and ozone. (After J. N. Howard, 1959: Proc. I.R.E. 47, 1459; and R. M. Goody and G.D. Robinson, 1951: Quart. H. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 77, (153); in: http://www.meteor.iastate.edu/gccourse/forcing/images.html.)
Figure 9.4 Relationship between the temperature and the solubility of CO₂ dissolved in water. (After Wallace, 2009.)

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 A portion of today’s carbon cycle showing the carbon path through the atmosphere, oceans, and soils. (After Harrison, 2003.)
Figure 10.2 The rock cycle portion of the carbon cycle. The primary source of CO₂ is degassing from the Earth’s interior. (After Columbia, 2017, http://www.columbia.edu/~vjd1/carbon.htm.)
Figure 10.3 Schematic showing relationship between the CO₂ content in the atmosphere (dashed line) and the volcanic activity on Earth (solid line). (Modified after Archer, 2010.)
Figure 10.4 Global volcanism over time (1850 to 2010). There has been a general increase in volcanism over the past 100 years. (Modified after http://informacaoincorrecta.blogspot.com/2011/08/porque-nibiru-nao-existe.html.)
Figure 10.5 Earth’s tectonic parameter defining the mantle degassing rate.
Figure 10.6 Rate of carbon dioxide degassing from mantle with time.
Figure 10.7 Earth’s tectonic activity measured by the heat flow from the mantle, m().zQ∝: Curve1 – Average for the Earth as a whole. Curve 2 – Tectonic activity within a wide ring belt of the Archaean Earth crust formation above a differentiation zone of the Earth’s matter. Dashed vertical line shows the time of the Earth’s core separation.
Figure 10.8 Water accumulation in the Earth’s hydrosphere: Curve 1 – Total mass of water degassed from the mantle. Curve 2 – Water mass in the ocean. Curve 3 – Water mass bonded in the ocean crust. Curve 4 – Water mass bonded in the continental crust. (After Sorokhtin and Ushakov, 2002.)
Figure 10.9 Mass of carbon dioxide bonded in the Earth’s crust and present in the Archaean atmosphere: Curve 1 – Mass of CO₂ degassed from the mantle. Curve 2 – Mass of CO₂ in the Earth’s crust carbonates. Curve 3 – Organic carbon mass normalized for CO₂. and Curve 4 – CO₂ mass in the Archaean atmosphere.
Figure 10.10 Solubility of carbon dioxide in water. (After J. M. Campbell, Petro Skills, 2017, http://www.jmcampbell.com/tip-of-the-month/2012/11/solubility-of-acid-gases-in-teg-solution-part-3-co2-in-teg/.)
Figure 10.11 Carbon dioxide mass bonded in the Earth’s crust: Curve 1 – Mass of the mantle degassed carbon dioxide. Curve 2 – Accumulation of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s crust carbonates. Curve 3 – Total mass of bonded carbon dioxide (within the carbonate and biogenic reservoirs). Curves 1 and 3 superpose and merge. Curve 4 – Mass of water bonded in Earth’s crust. Curve 5 – Organic carbon mass converted to CO₂.
Figure 10.12 Variation in carbon dioxide partial-pressure in the Earth’s atmosphere with time.
Figure 10.13 The formation of unique stratiform ore deposits in the Early Proterozoic due to the precipitation of ore elements after the bonding of Archaean atmosphere carbon dioxide in carbonates and cooling down of the oceanic water between Archaean and Proterozoic time (OB in the equation is organic matter). The arrows indicate arrival paths of ore elements in the oceans and their precipitation in Early Proterozoic (the descending arrows in Archaean show runoff from continents).
Figure 10.14 Schematic showing relationship between global air temperature and human CO₂ emissions from A.D. 16 to 2010. (Evans, 2010, states that these emission figures are not perfect because they omit some minor causes, e.g., deforestation; however, these are relatively minor). Evans also noted that the temperatures frm 1850 to 1980 are suspect because they were obtained from land-thermometers. (Modified after Evans. 2010.)
Figure 10.15 Variation of the atmospheric composition and pressure for the Earth over time. (Modified after Sorokhtin, 2005.)
Figure 10.16 Averaged temperature distributions in the troposphere of Venus: Curve 1 Today’s carbon dioxide troposphere and Curve 2 – hypothetical model of a nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere at the same conditions. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2007, figure 7.10, p. 274.)
Figure 10.17 Curve a – Correlation between the isotopic air temperature and time. Curve b – Correlation between the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration (ppmv) and time over the past 420,000 years at the Antarctic station Vostock, Antarctica. The CO₂ concentration and temperature data were derived from ice cores of a well drilled at that station to a total depth of 3,623 m. The temperature scale is the authors’ interpretation of the data. (Data provided by V. M. Kotlyakov.)
Figure 10.18 Contiguous U. S. average temperature anomaly (^°F) from 2005 to 2015. (After Watts, 2015; source NOAA U.S. Climate Reference Network, USCRN.)
Figure 10.19 A reconstruction of temperature deviation, to the 1961 – 1900 mean temperature for the Earth’s Northern Hemisphere during the last two millennia. The fact that the current warm period is not exceptional is clearly shown. (Modified after Geografiska Annaler, 2010.)

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Ozone concentration in the Earth’s troposphere and stratosphere. (After Ozone, 2014.)
Figure 11.2 Diagram of ozone molecule. (After Boundless, 2017.)
Figure 11.3 UV protection by the ozone layer. UV represents the Sun’s ultraviolet (UV) radiation which is made up of three types of rays – ultraviolet A (UVA), ultraviolet B (UVB), and ultraviolet C (UVC). UVC is the most dangerous type of ultraviolet light but cannot penetrate Earth’s protective ozone layer. (After Welch, 2017.)
Figure 11.4 Wave length radiation absorptivity for various gases of the atmosphere. An absorptivity of zero means no absorption, while a value of one means complete absorption. The dominant gas absorbers for infrared radiation are water vapor and carbon dioxide, oxygen and ozone. (After J. N. Howard, 1959: Proc. I.R.E. 47, 1459; and R. M. Goody and G.D. Robinson, 1951: Quart. H. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 77, (153); in: http://www.dimatesight.org/2011/03/30/ozone-depleytion-and-dimate-change/.)
Figure 11.5 Current solar radiation spectrum (solid line) compared to the spectrum of absolute black body at 6000 K (dashed line). Symbols N2, O2, and O3 indicate the spectrum lines (Fraunhofer lines) of nitrogen, oxygen, and ozone molecules corresponding to the dissociation energy of these molecules. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 12.46, p. 463.)
Figure 11.6 Temperature distribution in the Earth’s atmosphere (Atmosphere of Earth, 1988). T_e is the Earth’s effective temperature: T_s is the Earth’s average temperature normalized for sea level. DT is the greenhouse effect value. T_bb is the absolute black-body temperature at the distance of the Earth from the Sun. The tropopause temperature ranges from 190 to 220 K. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2011, figure 13.2, p. 473.)
Figure 11.7 Variation in the global ozone concentration with time. It has leveled off after years of decline and has been rising since 1993. (After http://w.w.w.climatesight.org/2011/03/30/ozone-depletion-and-climate-change/.)
Figure 11.8 The images of the ozone hole display the variability of the size of the hole, each September over many years. The size of the ozone hole relates to the number of sunspots or period of the sunspot cycle and not to the carbon dioxide content of Earth’s atmosphere. (After D’Aleo, 2011.) Figure 11–9. Actual Photos of the Antarctic ozone hole (black center) showing two extremes of the hole width. This hole was not visible in 1970, but it was very visible (see dark black area) in 2008. (NASA images courtesy Goddard Space Flight Center, Ozone Processing Team.)
Figure 11.9 Actual Photos of the Antarctic ozone hole (black center) showing two extremes of the hole width. This hole was not visible in 1970, but it was very visible (see dark black area) in 2008. (NASA images courtesy Goddard Space Flight Center, Ozone Processing Team.)
Figure 11.10 Photo of Antarctic area in 2011 displaying continents and low-pressure areas. (After NASA, 2011.)

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Earth’s atmosphere composition and pressure evolution. The dashed line is the atmospheric pressure in the absence of bacterial consumption of nitrogen.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Schematic showing the forces controlling the orbit of the Earth about the Sun due to gravity.
Figure 13.2 Sun’s motion around the solar system’s center of mass where the Sun’s limb is shown as a thick solid circle. The motion of the Sun’s center of mass between 1945 and 1995 is shown by the thinner curves with the years listed. (After Landscheidt, 2003.)
Figure 13.3 Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion are reflected in this schematic of the orbit of a planet about the Sun. Area 1 is always equal to the area swept by Area 2. The planet’s position on the orbital path requires that the gravitation forces are greater on the planet at the shorter distances from the Sun, d, resulting in greater tangential velocities along the path. Thus, the tangential velocity of the planet increases or decreases in velocity as it moves through its orbital path. At all times PE + KE = a constant.
Figure 13.4 Schematic illustrating Kepler’s Law of Periods. The straight dotted line expresses Kepler’s Law of Periods. (Data from Daugherty, 2006.)
Figure 13.5 The Earth’s yearly hemispheric contrast in distance from the Sun, d, between the summer and winter. The Sun is located in one of the ellipses foci, in Earth’s elliptical orbit of revolution about the Sun. The arrows point to the North star and indicate the angle of the Earth’s rotation on its axis. The vertical line shows the center of the Sun’s mass.
Figure 13.6 Schematic showing spread of energy, intensity/area of ray, with distance from the source.
Figure 13.7 Parameters describing elliptical orbits: (1) Apocenter – The location of the greatest distance between the orbiting body and the central body when the orbit is an ellipse. The apocenter is diametrically opposite the pericenter on the major axis of the orbit. (2) Pericenter—The shortest distance between the center of the orbiting body and the center of the orbited body. (After Cornell, 2017. https://www.classe.cornell.edu/~seb/celestia/orbital-parameters.html.)
Figure 13.8 Theoretical effect of Jupiter on the average monthly temperature fluctuations in the Earth’s medium latitudes during 1972 through 2023 (for greater time intervals, a more precise consideration of the deviation of Jupiter’s revolution period from 12 years is necessary). The Jupiter’s effect is determined by its gravity pull on the Earth resulting in the precession of the Earth’s elliptic orbit in its revolution around the Sun (the effect of 11-year fluctuation of solar activity does not exceed 0.1 to 0.15oC and may be disregarded here).

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Earth before and after the land masses (continents) were broken and redistributed over the Earth’s surface. (After Live Science, 2015.)
Figure 14.2 Paleo-reconstruction of the positions of the continents and oceans over the past 2.6 BY according to Lambert: (a) Monogaea, 2.6 BY ago. White areas on the continents indicate glaciers, whereas crosses indicate tillites and tilloids (Chumakov, 1978). (b) Megagaea by Sttille, l.8 BY ago. Wavy shading indicates folding belts and blackened areas show Redbed Formations (Anatolieva, 1978). (c) Mezogaea, 1 BY ago. (d) Disintegration of Mezogaea and formations of Laurasia and Gondwana, 750 MY ago. White areas on the continents indicate glaciers, whereas small triangles show location of tillites and tillotds (Chumakov, 1978). (e) Pangaea of Wegener, 200 MY ago, and (f) Present-day position of continents and oceans. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2009, figure 1.41, p. 79.)
Figure 14.3 Probable values of the precession angle of the Earth at the time of the supercontinents: (I) Monogaea, (II) Megagaea, (III) Mezogaea (Rodinia); and (IV) Pangaea. The tremendous masses of the supercontinents of Monogaea, Megagaea, and Mezogaea were 0.7, 0.8, and 0.9 of the mass of Pangaea, respectively. It was also assumed that a future supercontinent Hypergaea would form in 800 MY due to the Earth’s weakening tectonic activity.
Figure 14.4 Evolution of Earth’s temperature (climates) assuming a constant Earth’s precession angle (current) of y = 24°. Curve 1 – an average for Earth’s surface temperature at sea level calculated using Eq. 2–25. Curve 2 – the effective Earth’s temperature using Eq. 2.23. Curve 3 – Earth’s atmospheric greenhouse effect using Eq. 2–6. Curve 4 – The absolute black body temperature using Eq. 2.3. using the distance of the Earth-from-the-Sun, (d) describing the increase with time of the Sun’s luminosity, S. Curve 5 – Average Earth’s temperature on the assumption that there was no nitrogen consumption by bacteria.
Figure 14.5 Isotopic temperature for ocean flints superposed on a theoretical curve of Earth’s climate evolution. Curve 1 – average theoretical curve of the Earth’s temperature evolution at the oceanic surface (see Figure 14.5, curve 1); Curve 2 – Oxygen δ¹⁸O isotope shifts found in sea flints (see Figure 1.3, solid black dots, after Schopf, 1982) and estimated temperature of the depth of benthic water where the sea flints were deposited; Curve 3 – Temperature of an absolutely black body at the Earth-Sun distance describing Sun luminosity (see Figure 1.10).
Figure 14.6 The standing height of continents versus time.
Figure 14.7 Evolution of the Earth’s surface temperature for the continents caused by the mutual influence of: Curve 1 – evolution of Earth’s atmosphere; Curve 2 – standing height of continents (see Figure 14.6); and Curve 3 – variation in the angle of precession (Figure 14.3). Temperatures calculated at: Curve 1 – temperature at the Earth’s equator of the continents; Curve 2 – average temperature of continents; and Curve 3 – temperature at the continental poles. Dashed line indicates temperatures during the interglacial periods I to VI: Periods of glaciation on high mountains. (After Chumakov, 2004.)

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Averaged evolution of Earth’s climates at: constant Earth’s precession angle ψ = 24°. Curve 1 – Average for Earth surface temperature at the sea level estimated using Eq. 2.25. Curve 2 – Effective Earth’s temperature using Eq. 2.23. Curve 3 Earth’s atmosphere greenhouse effect using Eq. 2.6. Curve 4 – The absolute black body temperature using Eq. 2.3. using the distance of the Earth-from-the-Sun, (d) describing the increase with time of the Sun’s luminosity, S. Curve 5 – Average Earth’s temperature on the assumption that there was no nitrogen consumption by bacteria.
Figure 15.2 Superposition of isotopic temperature for sea flints on a theoretical curve of Earth’s climate evolution: Curve 1 – Theoretical curve of average Earth’s temperature evolution on the oceanic surface (see Figure 15.1). Curve 2 – Oxygen δ¹⁸O isotope shifts in sea flints (solid black dots are estimate temperature of benthic water where the sea flints were deposited) (After Schopf, 1982). Curve 3 – Temperature of absolutely black body at the Earth-Sun distance describing Sun luminosity (see Figure 15-3).
Figure 15.3 The Sun luminosity vs. time. (After Aller, 1976.)

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Sources of Earth’s heat flow – First order climate drivers. (After Sorokhtin et al., 2007.)

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Temperature distribution in the Earth’s troposphere and tropopause based\upon the Earth’s standard atmosphere.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Evolution of the Earth’s Atmospheres.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Major reservoirs of oxygen involved in the oxygen cycle. (Data based primarily on estimates from (Walker, J. C. G.; in: Wikipedia, 2017))

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Composition of Earth’s current dry atmosphere. (Data from Sflps, 2017.)

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Planetary orbit dimensions. (Data from Unv. Calif. Santa Barb., 2016.)

The Evolution of Earth’s Climate

J. O. Robertson

G. V. Chilingar

O. G. Sorokhtin

N. O. Sorokhtin

W. Long

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ISBN 978-1-119-40706-5