Contents

Cover

Preface

Chapter 1: Introduction to Desalination

1.1 Introduction
1.2 How Much Water is There?
1.3 Finding More Fresh Water
1.4 Desalination: Water from Water
1.5 Desalination: Water from Water Outline
Abbreviations
References

Chapter 2: Thermal Desalination Processes

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Mass- and Energy Balances
2.3 Performance of Thermal Desalination Processes
2.4 Recent Developments in Thermal Desalination Processes
2.5 Future Prospects
References

Chapter 3: Basic Terms and Definitions

3.1 Reverse Osmosis System Flow Rating
3.2 Recovery
3.3 Rejection
3.4 Flux
3.5 Concentration Polarization
3.6 Beta
3.7 Fouling
3.8 Scaling
3.9 Silt Density Index
3.10 Modified Fouling Index
3.11 Langelier Saturation Index
References

Chapter 4: Nanofiltration – Theory and Application

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Defining Nanofiltration
4.3 History of Nanofiltration
4.4 Theory
4.5 Application
4.6 Conclusions
References

Chapter 5: Forward Osmosis

5.1 The Limitations of Conventional Desalination
5.2 Forward Osmosis
5.3 The Draw Solution
5.4 The Membrane
5.5 Process Design and Desalination Applications
5.6 Future Directions
Acknowledgements
References

Chapter 6: Electrodialysis Desalination

6.1 Principles of ED
6.2 Preparation and Characterization of Ion Exchange Membranes
6.3 ED Equipment Design and Desalination Process
6.4 Control of Fouling in an ED Desalination Process
6.5 Prospects for ED Desalination
6.6 Concluding Remarks
References

Chapter 7: Continuous Electrodeionization

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Development History
7.3 Technology Overview
7.4 CEDI Module Construction
7.5 Electroactive Media Used in CEDI Devices
7.6 DC Current and Voltage
7.7 System Design Considerations
7.8 Process Design Considerations
7.9 Operation and Maintenance
7.10 Applications
7.11 Future Trends
Nomenclature
References

Chapter 8: Membrane Distillation: Now and Future

8.1 Introduction
8.2 MD Concepts and Historic Development
8.3 MD Transport Mechanisms
8.4 Strategic Development for An Enhanced MD System
8.5 Energy and Cost Evaluation in MD
8.6 Innovations on MD Application Development
8.7 Concluding Remarks and Future Prospects
References

Chapter 9: Humidification-Dehumidification Desalination

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Thermal Design
9.3 Systems with Mass Extraction and Injection
9.4 Bubble Column Dehumidification
9.5 Effect of High Salinity Feed on HDH Performance
Acknowledgements
Nomenclature
References

Chapter 10: Freezing-Melting Desalination Processes

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Background or History of Freezing-Melting Process
10.3 Principles of Freezing-Melting Process
10.4 Major Types of Freezing-Melting Process
10.5 Direct-Contact Freezing
10.6 Gas Hydrate Process
10.7 Direct-Contact Eutectic Freezing
10.8 Indirect-Contact FM Process
10.9 Pressure and Vacuum Processes
10.10 Applications
10.11 Future Challenges
Acknowledgment
Abbreviations
References

Chapter 11: Ion Exchange in Desalination

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Early Ion Exchange Desalination Processes
11.3 Life After RO
11.4 Ion Exchange Softening as Pre-Treatment
11.5 Softening by Ion Exchange
11.6 Boron-Selective Ion Exchange Resins as Post-Treatment
11.7 New Vessel Designs
11.8 New Resin Bead Design
11.9 Conclusion
References

Chapter 12: Electrosorption of Heavy Metals with Capacitive Deionization: Water Reuse, Desalination and Resources Recovery

12.1 Introduction
12.2 Experimental Methods
12.3 Results and Discussions
12.4 Conclusions
References

Chapter 13: Solar Desalination

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Solar Desalination
13.3 Direct Solar Desalination
13.4 Indirect Solar Desalination
13.5 Non-Conventional Solar Desalination
13.6 Solar Integration and Environmental Considerations
Nomenclature
References

Chapter 14: Wind Energy Powered Desalination Systems

14.1 Introduction
14.2 Basic Wind Technology Concepts
14.3 Particular Characteristics of Wind Energy
14.4 Classification of Wind-Driven Desalination Systems
14.5 Off-Grid Wind Energy Systems for Desalination
14.6 Wind-Diesel Systems for Desalination
14.7 Conclusions and Future Trends
List of Symbols
References

Chapter 15: Geothermal Desalination

15.1 Introduction
15.2 Renewable Energy Powered Desalination
15.3 Geothermal Energy Utilization Around the World
15.4 The Rationale – Why Geothermal Desalination?
15.5 Global Geothermal Desalination Potential
15.6 Geothermal Desalination – State of the Art
15.7 Desalination Process Selection
15.8 Challenges and Considerations for Geothermal Desalination Implementation
15.9 Techno-Economics of Geothermal Desalination
15.10 Summary
References

Chapter 16: Future Expectations

16.1 Introduction
16.2 Historical Trends in Fresh Water Supply Development
16.3 Emerging Trends and Directions in Alternative Water Supply Development
16.4 Desalination for Oil and Gas
16.5 The Future of Desalination Technologies
16.6 Summary
References

List of Contributors

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Allocation of the world’s water resources.
Figure 1.2 Global baseline water stress, 2015. Courtesy of World Resources Institute.
Figure 1.3 Global water stress in 1995 and predicted for 2025. Courtesy of Philippe...
Figure 1.4 Projected water stress by 2040. Courtesy of World Resources Institute.
Figure 1.5 Global demand for water and World Health Organization basic water requirements...
Figure 1.6 Terrevieja, Spain, 240,000 m³/day seawater reverse osmosis desalination...
Figure 1.7 Water sources for Los Angeles, California, USA [15].
Figure 1.8 Claude “Bud” Lewis Carlsbad (California) Desalination Facility...
Figure 1.9 Seawater disalination by country 2015 [25].
Figure 1.10 United States Geological Survey map of depth to saline ground water in United...
Figure 1.11 Observed minimum depth to brackish or highly-saline groundwater in the United States...
Figure 1.12 Growth of cummulative (a) and new (b), on-line desalination capacity...
Figure 1.13 Annual new contracted desalination capacity by feed water type [33]...
Figure 1.14 Total, global installed capacity by feed water source as of 2012 [37]...
Figure 1.15 Total, 2015 global installed capacity by type of user [35]. Courtesy of Global...
Figure 1.16 Global installed desalination capacity by technology for 2010(a) and 2016(b)...
Figure 1.17 Growth of installed membrane and thermal desalination capacity. Courtesy of Global...
Figure 1.18 The Ras Al Khair desalination and power generating facility in Saudi Arabia...
Figure 1.19 The 636,000 m³/day Jebel Ali MSF desalination plant and power...
Figure 1.20 MSF Desalination plant (110,000 m3/day capacity) combined with power plant - Doha...
Figure 1.21 Sidney Loeb (a and b) and coworker (b) with Loeb’s “Big Dripper”...
Figure 1.22 UCLA Team at Rain Tree facility, Coalinga, California, USA. Courtesy of Julius...
Figure 1.23 Cost distribution reduction as a function of time for MSF (a) and RO (b)...
Figure 1.24 The change in power consumption for RO in SWRO plants from the 1970s to 2008...
Figure 1.25 Annual and cumulative global desalination capacity as a function of time as calculated...
Figure 1.26 Relationship between renewable energy source and disalination technologies.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Schematic of a single-stage evaporation.
Figure 2.2 Schematic of a single-stage evaporation process with seawater preheating.
Figure 2.3 Flow diagram of a single-stage evaporation process with energy recovery.
Figure 2.4 Temperature vs. area diagram for the condenser and the preheater.
Figure 5.2 Simplified process flow diagram of a multiple-effect distillation plant (MED)...
Figure 2.6 Specific heat consumption of a Multiple-Effect-Distillation plant.
Figure 2.7 Annual specific energy and capital cost vs. number of stages of an MED plant.
Figure 2.8 Schematic representation of a counter-current MED plant.
Figure 2.9 Enthalpy-entropy (h-s) diagram of a flash evaporation process.
Figure 2.10 Schematic representation of the flashing process.
Figure 2.11 Ideal temperature profile of an MED plant (counter-current flow).
Figure 2.12 Temperature vs. heat transfer area for a preheater in an MED plant (counter-current flow).
Figure 2.13 Simplified flow sheet of the final condenser.
Figure 2.14 Specific heat consumption and specific area of an MED plant as a function of number of stages.
Figure 2.15 Schematic of a multiple-effect distillation (MED) as parallel feed flow.
Figure 2.16 Flow sheet of a Multi-Stage-Flash (MSF) evaporation plant. (Once-through mode).
Figure 2.17 Ideal temperature profile of a Multi-Stage-Flash evaporation plant. (Once-through mode).
Figure 2.18 Comparison of specific heat consumption of MSF vs. MED.
Figure 2.19 Schematic of a Multi-Stage-Flash evaporation plant as brine-recycle mode.
Figure 2.20 Ideal temperature profile of a Multi-Stage-Flash evaporation plant. (Brine-recycle mode).
Figure 2.21 Gained Output Ratio of an MSF plant vs. specific condenser area (parameter: number of stages N).
Figure 2.22 Flow sheet of an MED evaporation plant with thermal vapour compression (Gross balance).
Figure 2.23 Flow sheet of an MED evaporation plant with thermal vapour compression (Net balance).
Figure 2.24 Scheme of a thermal vapour compressor.
Figure 2.25 Schematic representation of a diffuser.
Figure 2.26 Pressure and velocity profile in a thermal vapour compressor.
Figure 2.27 Enthalpy vs. entropy (h-s) - diagram for the TVC process.
Figure 2.28 Performance diagram for a thermal vapour compressor [2].
Figure 2.29 Flow sheet and picture of an evaporation plant with mechanical vapour compression...
Figure 2.30 Mechanical vapour compression process in an h-s diagram.
Figure 2.31 Schematic of an MED plant and definition of GOR.
Figure 2.32 Flow chart of a single-purpose plant (Steam Boiler + Desalination).
Figure 2.33 Schematic of the pressure reduction station with injection for de-superheating...
Figure 2.34 Dual purpose plant/Case 1: Back Pressure turbine.
Figure 2.35 1) Condensation power station for electricity generation. 2) Steam generator as...
Figure 2.36 Dual purpose plant - Case 2: Controlled extraction steam turbine.
Figure 2.37 Dual purpose plant - Case 3: High pressure turbine + low pressure turbine.
Figure 2.38 Dual purpose plant - Case 4: Gas turbine + Exhaust Recovery Boiler.
Figure 2.39 Specific exergy and primary energy consumption vs. number of stages...
Figure 2.40 Block diagram of an Nanofitration (NF) - Multi-Stage-Flash (MSF) hybrid plant.
Figure 2.41 Block diagram of Tri-hybrid plant comprising Nanofiltration (NF) –...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Concentrate and instantaneous permeate concentration as functions of recovery.
Figure 3.2 Concentration of ammonia gas and ammonium ion as functions of pH.
Figure 3.3 Hydraulic boundary layer formed with fluid flow in a pipe.
Figure 3.4 Concentration polarization, where C_b is the bulk concentration and...
Figure 3.5 Fouling on membrane surface creates an additional barrier to permeate transport...
Figure 3.6 Cracked outer module casing (a) and telescoped membranes and spacers (b) due to...
Figure 3.7 Silt density index test apparatus and ancillary equipment.
Figure 3.8 Silt density index pads taken before and after a filter treating RO influent...
Figure 3.9 Ratio of filtration time to volume as a function of total volume of filtered...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Number of publications per year since 1990 with ‘nanofiltration’...
Figure 4.2 NaCl rejection by an NF membrane for a NaCl solution as a function of permeate...
Figure 4.3 Rejection of nonionic organic solutes by a NF membrane as a function of Stokes...
Figure 4.4 Rejection of negatively charged (top) and positively charged (bottom) organic...
Figure 4.5 Comparison of rejection performance (left) and pressure requirements...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Schematic of the generalized forward osmosis desalination process.
Figure 5.2 Flux performance of 2 commercially available RO membranes from GE Water (AG, CE)...
Figure 5.3 Scanning electron micrographs of a representative RO TFC membrane (left) and the...
Figure 5.4 Illustration of concentration polarization phenomenon near the active (selective)...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Schematic diagram of the typical arrangement in an ED process. (CEM: Cation...
Figure 6.2 Schematic diagram of the structure of an anion exchange membrane structure.
Figure 6.3 Concentration polarization occurring on the surface of an anion exchange membrane...
Figure 6.4 Determination of the limiting current density in a graph between supplied potential...
Figure 6.5 ED desalination cost as a function of the current density. (i_op...
Figure 6.6 Graph for the membrane fouling in ED process in the presence of an organic foulant...
Figure 6.7 Principle of the fouling mitigation by the periodical change of the polarity.
Figure 6.8 Integration of RO and ED for seawater desalination.
Figure 6.9 Integration of ED and CDI for seawater desalination.
Figure 6.10 Low energy ED system and process for seawater desalination.
Figure 6.11 Schematic diagram of stand-alone PV-ED process.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Ion transport and electrochemical regeneration in a CEDI cell.
Figure 7.2 Plate-and-frame CEDI device.
Figure 7.3 Spiral-wound CEDI device.
Figure 7.4 Removal mechanism in thick-cell, layered-bed CEDI cell.
Figure 7.5 Removal mechanism in thick-cell, separate-bed CEDI cell.
Figure 7.6 Dilute spacer from thick cell, layered bed CEDI module.
Figure 7.8 Flush up of RO system after standby.
Figure 7.9 Salt and CO₂ concentrations in an RO/CEDI system.
Figure 7.10 Co-flow and counter-flow pressure example.
Figure 7.11 Typical CIP apparatus.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Basic working principles of MD (redrawn from [8]).
Figure 8.2 Configurational variations of MD [9].
Figure 8.3 A surge of interest in MD from 2008 to 2017 (data obtained from Scopus).
Figure 8.4 Temperature- and concentration-polarization effects in MD (redrawn from [36]).
Figure 8.5 Mass- and heat-transfer analogs in MD (redrawn from [4]).
Figure 8.6 Net-type spacer design in flat-sheet membrane module [163].
Figure 8.7 Working principles of (a) Memstill [34] and (b) Memsys [161] MD modules.
Figure 8.8 Conceptual design of PGMD module developed by Fraunhofer Institute for Solar...
Figure 8.9 Novel module design and fabrication: (a) curly-fiber module; (b) spacer-knitted...
Figure 8.10 Concept of cascade module design (a) with inter-stage heating; (b) without...

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Simplest embodiment of HDH process [3].
Figure 9.2 Classification of HDH systems based on cycle configurations [1].
Figure 9.3 Performance of the older HDH systems in the literature [3].
Figure 9.4 Schematic diagram of a water-heated closed-air open-water HDH cycle [17].
Figure 9.5 Effect of relative humidity on performance of the WH-CAOW HDH cycle [17].
Figure 9.6 Effect of component effectiveness of humidifier on performance of the WH-CAOW HDH...
Figure 9.7 Effect of component effectiveness of dehumidifier on performance of the WH-CAOW...
Figure 9.8 Effect of top brine temperature on performance of the WH-CAOW HDH cycle [17].
Figure 9.9 HCR of dehumidifer versus GOR at various top brine temperatures [17].
Figure 9.10 Effect of feedwater temperature on performance of the WH-CAOW HDH cycle [17].
Figure 9.11 HCR of dehumidifer versus GOR at various feedwater temperatures [17].
Figure 9.12 Variation of the performance of a single-stage HDH system with HCR_d [36].
Figure 9.13 Variation of entropy generation with HCR_d [36].
Figure 9.14 Variation of the average of the driving forces with HCR_d [36].
Figure 9.15 Variation of the variance of the driving forces with HCR_d [36].
Figure 9.16 Effect of top temperature on performance for fixed or variable mass flow rate...
Figure 9.17 Schematic diagram of a water-heated, closed-air, open-water humidification-dehumidification...
Figure 9.18 Temperature-enthalpy profile of a balanced single-stage system with feed at...
Figure 9.19 Temperature profile representing the HDH system with a single extraction...
Figure 9.20 Variation of GOR with enthalpy pinch, Ψ, and number of extractions...
Figure 9.21 Water-heated, closed-air, open-water HDH system with a single extraction [36].
Figure 9.22 Variation of GOR with HCR_d,1 and HCR_d,2 [36].
Figure 9.23 Variation of GOR with HCR_d,1 and HCR_d,2 [36].
Figure 9.24 Variation of GOR with RR [36].
Figure 9.25 Effect of mass flow rate of air extracted on the performance of the HDH system...
Figure 9.26 Schematic diagram of the bubble column dehumidifier [82].
Figure 9.27 Schematic diagram of multi-stage bubble column dehumidifier [3].
Figure 9.28 Comparison of the performance of a single-tray bubble column and a five-tray...
Figure 9.29 Effect of multistaging the bubble column on energy effectiveness of the device...
Figure 9.30 Schematic diagrams of a coil-free dehumidifier implementation for an open-air...
Figure 9.31 Variation of seawater specific heat capacity at constant pressure with salinity...
Figure 9.32 Boiling point elevation and osmotic pressure of typical produced water samples...
Figure 9.33 Process paths of feed (f), brine (b), and moist air (ma) streams in a zero...
Figure 9.34 Energetic figures of merit for HDH over the salinity domain: (a) GOR, benchmarked...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Freezing-Melting Process with Ice Crystallization, Separation and Melting.
Figure 10.2 Direct Freezing-Melting System Including Refrigerant Cycle, Ice Nucleation and...

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1
Figure 11.2 Basic ion exchange softening.
Figure 11.3 Strong and weak acid cation exchange resin.
Figure 11.4 Merry-Go-Round System.
Figure 11.5 Active group in boron-selective resins.
Figure 11.6 Central drum with internal valve rotation.
Figure 11.7 Conventional vessel and packed bed vessel.
Figure 11.8 Hetero-disperse and mono-disperse or uniform particle size (UPS) resins.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Photograph of the CDI treatment system.
Figure 12.2 Voltage and current profiles during the treatment cycles of metals experiments.
Figure 12.3 Variation of conductivity of the electrolyte during experimental Runs #5–9...
Figure 12.4 Removal percentage of the heavy metals from electrolytes during experimental...
Figure 12.5 Variation of conductivity and metal concentrations in the treated electrolyte...
Figure 12.6 Variation of conductivity and cyanide in feed and treated water solutions at different...

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Global physical and economic water scarcity [1].
Figure 13.2 Global horizontal solar radiation in the world [3].
Figure 13.3 Development status and capacity range of renewable energy driven desalination [7].
Figure 13.4 Different configurations of solar stills [12].
Figure 13.5 A simple solar still producing 1.5 liter/day in Yemen [7].
Figure 13.6 Solar-assisted multi-effect CAOW system [12].
Figure 13.7 Solar-assisted seawater greenhouse.
Figure 13.8 Solar-assistedmulti-stage flash desalination [12].
Figure 13.9 Solar-assisted multi-effect desalination [12].
Figure 13.10 Different configurations of heat pumps [12].
Figure 13.11 Possible configurations of solar-assisted heat pumps systems [12].
Figure 13.12 Solar-driven reverse osmosis systems [12].
Figure 13.13 PV assisted electro-dialysis desalination [12].
Figure 13.14 Solar-driven membrane distillation [12].
Figure 13.15 Single-stage solar flash desalination system (adapted from [87]).
Figure 13.16 Multi-stage solar flash desalination system (adapted from [87]).
Figure 13.17 Possible solar desalination arrangements [12].
Figure 13.18 Vertical cross section of a solar pond (adapted from Goswami [92]).
Figure 13.19 Photovoltaic cell schematic (adapted from Goswami [92]).
Figure 13.20 Schematic of a stand-alone photovoltaic system(adapted from Goswami [92]).

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Some wind machine classifications.
Figure 14.2 Rotor power coefficients of various types of wind machine.
Figure 14.3 On the left, windmills in Campo de Criptana (Spain) used to grind grain [52]...
Figure 14.4 On the left, a multi-blade wind machine on Fuerteventura island (Spain) and, on...
Figure 14.5 On the left, a Darrieus wind turbine and, on the right, three-bladed horizontal-axis...
Figure 14.6 Classification of wind turbines according to their rated power.
Figure 14.7 Configuration of a horizontal-axis wind turbine.
Figure 14.8 Types of wind turbine rotor.
Figure 14.9 Power curves of wind turbines with different rotor power control.
Figure 14.10 Components generally used in a standard mechanical drive train.
Figure 14.11 Devices and mechanisms for stopping a rotor.
Figure 14.12 Other transmission system options.
Figure 14.13 Yaw systems.
Figure 14.14 Classification of electric generators used in wind turbines.
Figure 14.15 Classification of electrical system configurations of wind turbines.
Figure 14.16 Wind turbine with squirrel-cage rotor induction generator and smooth conventional...
Figure 14.17 Wind turbine with multi-pole synchronous generator and converter, rectifier and...
Figure 14.18 Wind turbine with asynchronous generator and condenser self-excitation squirrel-cage...
Figure 14.19 Wind turbine support structures.
Figure 14.20 Mean minute electrical power output over the course of a randomly chosen day of a...
Figure 14.21 Overall process of wind resource assessment.
Figure 14.22 Diurnal pattern of the wind speed at Gran Canaria (Spain) airport, constructed...
Figure 14.23 Monthly average wind speeds at Gran Canaria (Spain) airport, calculated using...
Figure 14.24 Mean annual wind speed data at Gran Canaria (Spain) airport, calculated using...
Figure 14.25 Wind speed frequency histogram constructed using thirteen years of mean hourly...
Figure 14.26 Wind rose constructed using thirteen years of mean hourly wind direction data...
Figure 14.27 Classification of wind-driven desalination systems.
Figure 14.28 Schematic representation of the structure of an electrical power system.
Figure 14.29 Desalination plants in Australia indirectly powered with wind energy (Source...
Figure 14.30 Desalination plants in the Canary Islands (Spain) indirectly powered by wind...
Figure 14.31 Location of the reverse osmosis desalination plant and the wind farm on the island...
Figure 14.32 Micro-grids interconnected to the conventional grid on the island of Gran...
Figure 14.33 Wind energy converter and self-contained desalination plant installed by Petersen...
Figure 14.34 Schematic representation of the prototype installed by Petersen et al....
Figure 14.35 Schematic representation of the AEROGEDESA project. Prototype for the production...
Figure 14.36 Schematic representation of the system proposed by Carta et al. [66] to...
Figure 14.37 Schematic representation of the prototype proposed by Cabrera et al. [92]...
Figure 14.38 Schematic representation of the wind-driven RO system for brackish water desalination...
Figure 14.39 Mechanical system developed by Heijman et al. [45] showing the high-pressure...
Figure 14.40 Basic schematic representation of the medium-scale wind-driven desalination...
Figure 14.41 Location on the island of Syros of the 500 kW wind turbine and the RO desalination...
Figure 14.42 Basic schematic representation of the wind-driven desalination system of the SDAWES...
Figure 14.43 Location of the different elements of the wind energy driven desalination system...
Figure 14.44 Location on the island of Rügen (Germany) of the wind energy driven desalination...
Figure 14.45 Basic outline of the wind-driven desalination system installed on the island...
Figure 14.46 Location of the MVC desalination plant and wind turbine on the island...
Figure 14.47 Basic configuration of the Freshwatermill system proposed by SolteQ Energy...
Figure 14.48 Location of a wind-diesel system, one of whose loads is an SWRO desalination plant...
Figure 14.49 Basic schematic representation of the wind-diesel system installed on the island...
Figure 14.50 Large-scale desalination system configuration.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Renewable energy applications for desalination including geothermal energy.
Figure 15.2 General schematic of geothermal energy source utilization.
Figure 15.3 Capacity factors (in percent) reported for various renewable energy sources.
Figure 15.4 Comparison of the electricity prices derived from renewable and non-renewable...
Figure 15.5 Integrated configurations for geothermal energy sources – poly generation...
Figure 15.6 Hottest geothermal energy sources around the world which are suitable for...
Figure 15.7 Geothermal energy applications in desalination and cogeneration (water and power production).
Figure 15.8 Major constituents of geothermal waters in the U.S. [24].
Figure 15.9 Multi-effect evaporation desalination system driven by geothermal sources.
Figure 15.10 Relationship between the permeate flow and the feed water temperature in a SWRO...
Figure 15.11 Schematic of a double stage RO process for recovering spent geothermal waters...
Figure 15.12 (a) Geothermal energy capital cost comparison with other renewable energy sources...

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 U.S. fresh surface water withdrawal capacity 1920-2000 (from Sandia National...
Figure 16.2 Major ground water aquifers impacted by overpumping (from Sandia National Laboratories 2009).
Figure 16.3 Expected water supply shortages by 2013 under average conditions (from Sandia National....
Figure 16.4 Growth in waste water reuse and desalination in the U.S. since 1990 (from Sandia....
Figure 16.5 Depth to saline groundwater (from Stanton et al., 2017).
Figure 16.6 Historical usage of saline groundwater by industry (from Stanton et al., 2017).
Figure 16.7 El Paso desalting operation (from Hutchinson 2009).
Figure 16.8 Inhibition of silica precipitation at low pH.
Figure 16.9 Oklahoma earthquakes over time (Source: USGS...
Figure 16.10 Electrostatic bonds between oil and kaolinite edges (from Brady and Krumhansl...
Figure 16.11 Electrostatic bonds between calcite surfaces and oil (from Brady and Thyne, 2016).
Figure 16.12 OU.S. Gas plays and basins (from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2011).
Figure 16.13 Schematic of hydrofrack process (from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Figure 16.14 Salt levels in Bakken Play fluids (from Energy & Environmental Research...
Figure 16.15 Concentrate management costs (After Mickley, 2006).
Figure 16.16 Schematic of SAGD process (source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs070-03/fig3.jpg).
Figure 16.17 Warm lime softening treatment for SAGD.
Figure 16.18 Cost breakdown for seawater reverse osmosis (from Miller 2003).

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Actual and projected water sources for Los Angeles Department of Water and Power...
Table 1.2 Classification of source waters as a function of total dissolved solids (TDS).
Table 1.3 Sample water composition of seawater, well water, surface water, and grey water...
Table 1.4 Advances in brackish water reverse osmosis membrane performance [45].
Table 1.5 Decline in membrane cost relative to 1980 [55].
Table 1.6 Sample desalination technologies. Technologies covered in this volume are noted...
Table 1.7 Renewable energy sources (RES) and CO₂-free technologies used...
Table 1.8 Key data for renewable energy desalination, 2013 [72].
Table 1.9 Cir. 2010 airborne emissions per cubic meter of water generated by various...
Table 1.10 Emissions for desalination processes powered by RES [82].

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Typical values of thermal and RO desalination plants as a basis for Figure 2.39.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Concentration factor as a function of recovery.
Table 3.2 General rejection capabilities of most polyamide composite membranes at room...
Table 3.3 Recommended flux as a function of influent water source.
Table 3.4 Generally-accepted water quality guidelines to minimize RO membrane fouling.
Table 3.5 Generally-accepted water quality guidelines to minimize RO membrane scaling.
Table 3.6 Langelier Saturation Index.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 List of commercially available NF membranes with select properties...
Table 4.2 List of water treatment facilities employing NF in the U.S. (data obtained from...

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Comparison of properties and FO performance (at 20 – 25 °C) of...
Table 5.2 Comparison of properties and FO performance (at 20 – 25°C)...

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Advantages and disadvantages of membrane desalination processes [3].
Table 6.2 Characteristic properties of commercial homogeneous ion exchange membranes.
Table 6.3 Characteristic properties of commercial heterogeneous ion exchange membranes...
Table 6.4 Summary of guideline for desalting selection [27].
Table 6.5 Cost estimation of desalination processes [27].
Table 6.6 Candidate foulants in an ED process [30].

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Cell thickness vs. performance for a CEDI-MB device.
Table 7.2 Resin Particle size distribution vs. performance for a CEDI-MB device.
Table 7.3 Required Controls & Instrumentation.
Table 7.4 Optional Controls & Instrumentation.
Table 7.5 Typical CEDI Feed Water Requirements.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Summary of currently used commercial membranes for MD (information extracted...
Table 8.2 Lab-scale MD membrane fabrication.
Table 8.3 Cost elements involved in MD WPC calculations.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Optimization results for water-heated and air-heated CAOW cycles as a function...

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Experimental water matrices and drinking water regulations.
Table 12.2 Summary of heavy metals concentrations at different treatment time.
Table 12.3 Physico-chemical properties of the studied ions.
Table 12.4 Metal concentrations measured in the electrode drain samples.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Solar pond assisted MSF desalination systems [12].
Table 13.2 Different types of solar collector-assisted MSF [27].
Table 13.3 Solar pond-assisted MED desalination systems [12].
Table 13.4 Different solar collector types coupled with MED systems [12].
Table 13.5 Solar-assisted different heat pump configurations [12].
Table 13.6 PV system powered RO desalination systems [27].
Table 13.7 Solar ORC powered ROdesalination systems [27].
Table 13.8 PV system assisted ED desalination systems.
Table 13.9 Solar collectors [91].
Table 13.10 Spectral absorption of solar radiation in water [82].

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 IEC classification of wind turbines.

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 A summary of geothermal desalination installations around the world.
Table 15.2 Geothermal desalination feed and product water compositions studied in Poland...
Table 15.3 Environmental impacts of geothermal source based power production and desalination.
Table 15.4 Environmental regulations to be considered for geothermal source based power...
Table 15.5 Desalination costs for various desalination processes for various capacities.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Energy Demand for Several Alternative Water Supply Enhancement Options...
Table 16.2 Water cost and energy outlays.
Table 16.3 Impaired water compositions.
Table 16.4 Frack fluid additives (after U.S. Department of Energy - All Consulting 2009).

Desalination 2nd Edition

Water from Water

Edited by

Jane Kucera

This edition first published 2019 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-119-40774-4

Preface

The world-wide demand for “fresh” water is growing exponentially, while the supply of readily-available fresh water is dwindling. Several diverse techniques have been implemented to try to meet the growing demand for fresh water, with variable degrees of success. One technique that has had great success and that continues to grow in application is desalination. Desalination encompasses a host of technologies such that clean water may be generated regardless of location, make-up source, and/or energy source.

This book explores numerous desalination technologies. Some of the technologies that are covered here are highly commercialized and are in extensive use today, while others are under development and may be commercially-viable tomorrow. This book also covers renewable energy sources (wind, geothermal, and solar) as alternatives to fossil-fuels to drive desalination technologies.

World-renowned experts have contributed to this book. The authors’ experience includes decades of work in their respective fields, and covers the gamut from academia to real-world practice. I thank the authors for contributing their time and sharing their expertise to help us explore the possibilities within the realm of desalination.