Cover
1 EMI Shielding Fundamentals
1. 1.1 Fundamentals of EMI Shielding Theory
2. 1.2 Materials for EMI Shielding
3. 1.3 Mechanism of EM Shielding Materials
4. References
2 EM Noise and Its Impact on Human Health and Safety
1. 2.1 Introduction
2. 2.2 Impact of Non‐ionizing EMFs on Humans
3. 2.3 Overview of Most Common Sources of EMFs in the Occupational and Residential Modern Human Environment
4. 2.4 Protection Against EMFs in European and International Law
5. 2.5 Assessment of the Level of EMFs in the Workplaces
6. 2.6 Assessment of EMF Levels in Inhabited Area
7. 2.7 Assessment of the Level of EMF From Hi‐tech Equipment for Personal Use
8. 2.8 Needs and Possibilities of Shielding to Reduce the Exposure to EMF
9. 2.9 Summary
10. References
3 Electromagnetic Field Sensors
1. 3.1 Introduction
2. 3.2 How are EMFs Produced?
3. 3.3 Electromagnetic Field Measurements
4. 3.4 Conclusion
5. References
4 Shielding Efficiency Measuring Methods and Systems
1. 4.1 Introduction
2. 4.2 Calculation of Electromagnetic Shielding Effectiveness
3. 4.3 Effect of Various Parameters on Electromagnetic Shielding Effectiveness
4. 4.4 Types of EMI Shielding Effectiveness Tests
5. 4.5 Shielding Effectiveness Measurement Methods and Systems
6. 4.6 Transfer Impedance of Coaxial Cable
7. 4.7 Measurement of Transfer Impedance of Conductive Gasket
8. 4.8 Summary
9. References
5 Electrical Characterization of Shielding Materials
1. 5.1 Introduction
2. 5.2 Basics of Electrostatics
3. 5.3 Electrical Conductivity
4. 5.4 Electric Fields in Materials
5. 5.5 Dielectric Properties
6. 5.6 Electromagnetic Interference Shielding Materials
7. References
6 Magnetic Field Shielding
1. 6.1 Introduction
2. 6.2 Theories of Magnetic Field Shielding
3. 6.3 Standard Shielding Materials
4. 6.4 Multilayer Ferromagnetic Matrix Composite Materials
5. 6.5 Sandwich Composite/Structure Shielding System
6. 6.6 Summary
7. References
7 Recent Progress in Electromagnetic Absorbing Materials
1. 7.1 Introduction
2. 7.2 Core–Shell Structured Electromagnetic Absorbing Materials
3. 7.3 CNM‐Based Electromagnetic Absorbing Material
4. 7.4 Graphene Based Polymer Composites for EMI Shielding
5. 7.5 Challenges and Prospect
6. References
8 Flexible and Transparent EMI Shielding Materials
1. 8.1 Introduction
2. 8.2 Theory of Transparent EMI Shielding
3. 8.3 Transparent Thin Films for EMI Shielding
4. 8.4 Nanocarbon Based Flexible, Transparent EMI Shielding Materials
5. 8.5 Conducting Polymer‐Based Flexible, Transparent EMI Shielding Materials
6. 8.6 Nanowire Based Flexible, Transparent EMI Shielding Materials
7. 8.7 Conclusions
8. References
9 Polymer‐Based EMI Shielding Materials
1. 9.1 Introduction
2. 9.2 Types of Polymer Matrixes
3. 9.3 Polymer Composites for EMI Shielding Applications
4. 9.4 Structured Polymer Composites for EMI Shielding
5. 9.5 Future Perspectives
6. References
10 Textile Based Shielding Materials
1. 10.1 Introduction
2. 10.2 Materials for Production of EMI Textiles
3. 10.3 Development Trends of Textile Based Shielding Materials
4. 10.4 Methods of Shielding Effectiveness Measurement
5. 10.5 Conclusions
6. References
11 Graphene and CNT Based EMI Shielding Materials
1. 11.1 Introduction to Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes
2. 11.2 Brief Outline of Synthesis of EMI Shielding Materials
3. 11.3 General Characteristic of EMI Shielding Materials
4. 11.4 EMI Shielding Properties of EMI Shielding Materials
5. 11.5 Overview of Structure and EMI Shielding Property Relationship and Their Applications
6. 11.6 Future Scope of Research and Application of these Materials
7. 11.7 Conclusions
8. References
12 Nanocomposites Based EMI Shielding Materials
1. 12.1 Nanomaterials and Nanocomposite Materials
2. 12.2 EMI Shielding Materials
3. 12.3 Electromagnetic Wave and EMI Shielding Mechanism
4. 12.4 Carbonous EMI Shielding Nanocomposites
5. 12.5 Other EMI Shielding Nanocomposites
6. References
13 Silver Nanowires as Shielding Materials
1. 13.1 Introduction
2. 13.2 Scalable Synthesis of AgNWs
3. 13.3 Fabrication of Shielding Materials Based on Silver Nanowire/Polymer Conductive Composites
4. 13.4 Properties of Shielding Materials Based on Silver Nanowire/Polymer Conductive Composites
5. 13.5 Conclusion
6. References
14 Advanced Carbon Based Foam Materials for EMI Shielding
1. 14.1 Introduction
2. 14.2 Carbon Hybrid Materials for EMI Shielding
3. 14.3 Conclusion
4. References
15 Electromagnetic Interference Shielding Materials for Aerospace Application
1. 15.1 Introduction
2. 15.2 Radiation in Space Environment
3. 15.3 Electromagnetic Radiated Field
4. 15.4 Electromagnetic Interference in Aerospace
5. 15.5 Electromagnetic Interference Shielding Mechanism for Various Materials
6. 15.6 Requirement of Shielding Materials for Aerospace
7. 15.7 Types of Shielding Materials for Aerospace
8. 15.8 Conclusion
9. References
16 Metamaterials as Shielding Materials
1. 16.1 Introduction
2. 16.2 The Need for EMI Shielding
3. 16.3 Why Metamaterials for Shielding Applications?
4. 16.4 Metamaterials for Electromagnetic Shielding
5. 16.5 Design and Fabrication of Metamaterials
6. 16.6 Other Applications
7. 16.7 Challenges in Metamaterials
8. 16.8 Summary
9. References
17 Double Percolating EMI Shielding Materials Based on Polymer Blend Nanocomposites
1. 17.1 Introduction
2. 17.2 Concept of Double Percolation
3. 17.3 Carbon Black and Carbon Nanofiber Based Composites
4. 17.4 Carbon Nanotube Based Nanocomposites
5. 17.5 Hybrid Filler Based Nanocomposites
6. 17.6 Conclusion
7. References
18 Mechanical Performance Characterization of EMI Shielding Materials Using Optical Experimental Techniques
1. 18.1 Introduction
2. 18.2 Characterizing the In‐Plane Mechanical Performance of EMI Shielding Materials
3. 18.3 Characterizing Out‐of‐Plane Mechanical Performance of EMI Shielding Materials
4. 18.4 Characterizing the Fracture and Fatigue Performance of EMI Shielding Materials
5. 18.5 Concluding Remarks
6. Acknowledgments
7. References
Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 02
1. Table 2.1 Most common equipment and installations generating 0 Hz–300 GHz EMF.
2. Table 2.2 Basic restriction on current density and SAR for RF EMF (100 kHz–10 GHz).^a–g
3. Table 2.3 EMF radiation regulations for mobile towers (1800 MHz) valid in individual countries.
4. Table 2.4 Permissible levels of electromagnetic fields in the environment under the Polish regulations.
Chapter 06
1. Table 6.1 Thickness and initial permeability of each layer in the Fe–Ni multilayer composite and Fe substrate.
2. Table 6.2 Computed SF value and measured result.
3. Table 6.3 Thickness and initial permeability of each layer in the multilayer composite and of the single‐layer pure iron substrate.
4. Table 6.4 Computational and experimental SF value of different materials.
5. Table 6.5 Computational and experimental SF value of different structures.
Chapter 08
1. Table 8.1 Average SE values for the frequency range 30 KHz to 1.2 GHz, average transmittance, and sheet resistance as reported in Reference [14].
Chapter 09
1. Table 9.1 Electrical conductivity and EMI SE of typical polymers.
2. Table 9.2 EMI SE values of carbon‐based polymer composites.
3. Table 9.3 EMI SE values of magnetic particle filled along carbon materials in polymer matrix.
4. Table 9.4 Properties of metal‐filled polymer composites as EMI shielding materials.
5. Table 9.5 Specific EMI SE values of various foamed materials measured in the X‐band frequency range. [121]. Reproduced with permission of the American Chemical Society.
Chapter 14
1. Table 14.1 Electrical resistivity and attenuation values of continuous carbon‐fiber composites.
Chapter 15
1. Table 15.1 Nature of radiation and related sources of rays and particles [19].
2. Table 15.2 Communication devices and related frequency range.
3. Table 15.3 Effect of electromagnetic interference [79].
4. Table 15.4 Materials and related shielding mechanism.
5. Table 15.5 Shielding effectiveness for professional medical equipment, quarantine material, professional security uniform for electronic manufacturer, electronic kit, etc.
6. Table 15.6 Shielding effectiveness for casual wear, office uniform, maternity dress, apron, consumptive electronic products and communication related products, etc.
7. Table 15.7 Electrical conductivity of various metals [84].
8. Table 15.8 Relative permeability data for various materials.
9. Table 15.9 Properties and application of metals for EMI shielding.
10. Table 15.10 Electromagnetic wave abortion ability of various structured metal, alloys, and their composites.
11. Table 15.11 Electromagnetic effectiveness of various metal and alloys.
12. Table 15.12 Electromagnetic effectiveness of various metal foams.
13. Table 15.13 Electromagnetic absorption properties of various metal and alloy coated fabrics.
14. Table 15.14 Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of various metal and alloy coated fabrics.
15. Table 15.15 Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of various conducting polymer based fabrics.
16. Table 15.16 Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of various carbon nanotube polymer nanocomposites.
17. Table 15.17 Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of various graphene based polymer nanocomposites.
Chapter 16
1. Table 16.1 Nature of materials with varying material parameters ε and μ.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01
1. Figure 1.1 Schematic representation showing mechanism of electromagnetic shielding.
2. Figure 1.2 Factors determining shielding effectiveness [7].
3. Figure 1.3 Characterization and requirements for EMI shielding materials [8].
4. Figure 1.4 Power balance graph for MWCNT/PP nanocomposite in the X‐band frequency range of plate thickness (a) 0.34, (b) 1, and (c) 2.8 mm [13].
5. Figure 1.5 Shielding mechanisms: (a) absorption loss, reflection loss, and total shielding as function of CNF content; (b) power balance as function of CNF content [14].
6. Figure 1.6 Comparison of SE_total, SE_A, and SE_R for GPS045 (a) and GPS027 (b) in the 8.2–12.4 GHz range [15].
7. Figure 1.7 Graph showing contribution of reflection and absorption loss to total EMI SE in PTT/MWCNT composites [16].
8. Figure 1.8 Graph showing contribution of reflection, absorption, and transmittance to total EMI shielding of AgNW/cellulose papers and their dependence on electrical conductivity at 1.0 GHz [17].
9. Figure 1.9 Graph showing contribution of absorbance, reflectance, and total EMI SE of PET fabric/PPy composites with various specific volume resistivities [18].
Chapter 02
1. Figure 2.1 Spectrum of electromagnetic field and radiation.
2. Figure 2.2 Comparison of exposure limits set by ICNIRP 1998 and those currently in force in Poland (2002).
3. Figure 2.3 Highest levels of electric field intensity for workplaces at selected common RF EMF sources used in Poland.
4. Figure 2.4 EMF RF spectrum in the center of a city of over 700 000 people in Poland.
5. Figure 2.5 Evaluation of RF EMF level in an area of the city, with a population of 700 000, depending on the character of the area.
6. Figure 2.6 Results of measurements of the electric field in the vicinity of hi‐tech equipment for personal use.
7. Figure 2.7 Example of architectural shielding with the use of textile shielding materials in a physiotherapy studio equipped with a microwave diathermy unit.
Chapter 03
1. Figure 3.1 Comparison of different sensors based on the detectable field range [6, 8].
2. Figure 3.2 Moving coil sensor for DC magnetic field [7].
3. Figure 3.3 Typical Rogowski coil [7].
4. Figure 3.4 Operation principle of fluxgate magnetometer [21].
5. Figure 3.5 Schematic of a micro‐fluxgate sensor with flat coils [22].
6. Figure 3.6 Layout of a typical SQUID magnetometer.
7. Figure 3.7 Effect of magnetic field lines on current through Hall sensors [59].
8. Figure 3.8 An MR element during fabrication [59].
9. Figure 3.9 Magnetoresistance sensor assembly [76].
10. Figure 3.10 Block diagram of proton precision magnetometer [78, 79].
11. Figure 3.11 Mechanism of optical pumping [84].
12. Figure 3.12 Schematic of electric field probes [89].
13. Figure 3.13 Equivalent circuit diagram of Schottky diode detector [95, 98].
14. Figure 3.14 Equivalent circuit of the thermocouple diode [99].
15. Figure 3.15 Step triangulation concept.
Chapter 04
1. Figure 4.1 Conceptual mechanism for determining SE.
2. Figure 4.2 Shielding effectiveness tester (coaxial holder method).
3. Figure 4.3 A two‐port VNA and its internal block diagram.
4. Figure 4.4 Description of signal paths in a two port VNA by using scattering parameters.
5. Figure 4.5 Open field SE measurement.
6. Figure 4.6 Shielded box SE measurement.
7. Figure 4.7 Coaxial transmission line measurement.
8. Figure 4.8 Shielded room SE measurement.
9. Figure 4.9 Basic test set up for experimental determination of SE (a) reference measurement (b) load measurement.
10. Figure 4.10 Shielding effectiveness measurement according to the standard MIL‐STD‐285.
11. Figure 4.11 Radiated shielding effectiveness testing method (MIL‐G‐83528).
12. Figure 4.12 Shielding effectiveness measurement using a dual mode stirred chamber facility.
13. Figure 4.13 Dual TEM cell.
14. Figure 4.14 ASTM ES‐7 dual chamber test fixture.
15. Figure 4.15 (a) ASTM ES7 test cell (b) washer shaped sample.
16. Figure 4.16 (a) ASTM D4935 test cell, (b) reference sample¸ and (c) load sample.
17. Figure 4.17 Injection molded enclosure test method.
18. Figure 4.18 IEEE‐STD‐299.
19. Figure 4.19 Free‐space transmission measurement method.
20. Figure 4.20 Free space reflection measurement method.
21. Figure 4.21 Time domain measurement technique.
22. Figure 4.22 Schematic measurement setup example for the triaxial transfer impedance fixture used in standard IEC 96‐1A.
23. Figure 4.23 Transfer impedance measurement on a conductive gasket.
Chapter 05
1. Figure 5.1 Hypothetical surface in an electric field.
Chapter 06
1. Figure 6.1 Magnetic field lines around bar magnet (a), straight conductor (b) and current loop (c).
2. Figure 6.2 Schematic diagram of magnetic circuit.
3. Figure 6.3 Schematic diagram of magnetic shielding by introduction of an eddy current.
4. Figure 6.4 Shielding diagram (a) and equivalent magnetic circuit (b).
5. Figure 6.5 Three‐layer shielding structure (a) and equivalent magnetic circuit (b).
6. Figure 6.6 Simplified magnetic circuit of a three‐layer structure. (a) R_V is too low; (b) R_V is too high.
7. Figure 6.7 Schematic diagram of multilayer structural design. (a) Multilayer ferromagnetic matrix composite; (b) sandwich composite; (c) sandwich structure.
8. Figure 6.8 Schematic curve of magnetic flux density (B) versus magnetic field strength (H).
9. Figure 6.9 Schematic figures (a, b) showing specimen preparation and metallographic morphology (c, d) of a Fe–Ni multilayer composite. (a, c) Cross section; (b, d) oblique section.
10. Figure 6.10 Nickel element distribution in surface layer of Fe–Ni/Fe/Fe–Ni multilayer composite.
11. Figure 6.11 XRD pattern of Fe–Ni multilayer composite.
12. Figure 6.12 Set‐up for measuring geomagnetic field shielding factor.
13. Figure 6.13 Geomagnetic shielding factor of different structures and cooling conditions.
14. Figure 6.14 Initial permeability of Fe–Ni alloy under different cooling conditions.
15. Figure 6.15 Schematic diagram of magnetic shielding and equivalent magnetic circuit.
16. Figure 6.16 Divided Fe–Ni alloy layers and initial permeability of each layer.
17. Figure 6.17 Micrograph and element distribution of multilayer composite before (a, c) and after (b, d) diffusion heat treatment.
18. Figure 6.18 Geomagnetic shielding factor of different structures.
19. Figure 6.19 Schematic diagram of magnetic shielding for the Fe–Al multilayer composite.
20. Figure 6.20 Initial permeability of Fe–Al alloy with different Al content.
21. Figure 6.21 Linear fitting of Al element distribution in the inner layer of the Fe–Al alloy.
22. Figure 6.22 Schematic diagram of the fabrication process for the sandwich composite.
23. Figure 6.23 Optical micrographs of sandwich composites with diffusion at 900 °C for (a) 1, (b) 3, and (c) 10 h.
24. Figure 6.24 X‐ray diffraction patterns of a cross section of the sandwich composites with (a) 1, (b) 3, and (c) 10 h diffusion time.
25. Figure 6.25 SEM micrographs of the diffusion zone with diffusion treatment for (a) 1, (b) 3, and (c) 10 h; (d) color‐coded EBSD phase map of a cross section with diffusion for 1 h; (e) EDS linear analysis result obtained along the horizontal arrow in (c).
26. Figure 6.26 Electronic conductivity of sandwich composites with different diffusion times.
27. Figure 6.27 Maximum magnetic permeability of sandwich composites with different diffusion times.
28. Figure 6.28 Schematic figure illustrating measurement of geomagnetic field shielding.
29. Figure 6.29 Static magnetic shielding result of sandwich composites and pure iron plate.
30. Figure 6.30 Aluminium elemental distribution of Fe–Al reaction layer in sandwich composites.
Chapter 07
1. Figure 7.1 Essentials of EMI [5].
2. Figure 7.2 Schematic diagram of a core–shell structure.
3. Figure 7.3 HRTEM micrographs of a PR‐25 carbon nanofiber [75].
Chapter 08
1. Figure 8.1 Light transmission of as‐prepared silver nanowire films with different thickness of silver nanowire.
2. Figure 8.2 (a) Photograph of PES/PET double layer transparent film; (b, c) photographs of PES/silver nanowire/PET sandwich structure film; (d) schematic diagram of sandwich film; (e) SE of films with different thickness of silver nanowire layer.
3. Figure 8.3 Schematic depiction of the fabrication of transparent films for EMI shielding.
Chapter 09
1. Figure 9.1 Variations of EMI SE values as a function of frequency in the X band for pure UHMWPE and the graphite/UHMWPE segregated composite samples with various graphite contents.
2. Figure 9.2 Variation of SE as a function of graphite content in graphite/ABS composites at various frequencies for shielding due to: (a) reflection, (b) absorption.
3. Figure 9.3 Influence of processing conditions on the EMI SE of 7.5 vol.% VGCNF/PS composites.
4. Figure 9.4 Variations of EMI SE for solid and foamed PP/CF composites as a function of CF content.
5. Figure 9.5 Variations of EMI SE of s‐CNT/PE composite as a function of CNT content.
6. Figure 9.6 Effect of MWCNT content on EMI SE and electrical conductivity (r) of PTT/MWCNT composite.
7. Figure 9.7 Variations of EMI SE of HS‐CB/PP composites as a function of filler content and shielding plate thickness in the X‐band frequency range.
8. Figure 9.8 Variation of EMI SE for SEBS/CB composites with 3, 5, 7, 10, and 15 wt% of CB.
9. Figure 9.9 Changes of EMI SE for graphene/epoxy composites with various graphene (SPFG) loadings as a function of frequency in the X‐band.
10. Figure 9.10 (a) EMI SE_T of rGO/PS and SrGO/PS nanocomposites, (b) SE_A and SE_R of rGO7.5/PS and SrGO7.5/PS, and (c) skin depth of rGO/PS and SrGO/PS composites.
11. Figure 9.11 Variations of EMI SE_A and SE_R of RGO and magnetic graphene hybrid films with a thickness of 0.23 mm as a function of frequency.
12. Figure 9.12 Comparison of SE_total, SE_A and SE_R at 10.4 GHz for samples 10PAN900, A3F900, and A5F900 containing 0, 3, and 5 wt% Fe₃O₄, respectively (all samples were approximately 0.7 mm thick).
13. Figure 9.13 Total shielding effectiveness as a function of frequency for PC/SAN blends in the X and Ku‐band frequencies.
14. Figure 9.14 Dependence of shielding effectiveness (SE_A and SE_R) of PF12, PGF1, and PGF2 composites as a function of frequency for sample thickness of 2.5 mm; a representation of the EMI SE is also shown.
15. Figure 9.15 Variations of SE of composites containing 1 wt% Fe₃O₄–RGO (upper line) compared with that of pristine PEDOT‐PIL (bottom line).
16. Figure 9.16 Calculated and experimental microwave reflectivity of composites containing various amounts of MnO₂: (a) 10, (b) 20, (c) 30, and (d) 40 vol.%.
17. Figure 9.17 Dependence of RL on thickness of absorption layer within the frequency range 2–18 GHz: (a) 71 wt% Fe@SiO₂/PU and (b) 71 wt% Fe@FeO/PU PNCs.
18. Figure 9.18 Variation of reflection loss (RL) with frequency for α‐FeOOH nanorods/PPy composites at different [Py]/[Fe2+] ratios (specimen thickness = 2 mm).
19. Figure 9.19 Variation of SE due to absorption (SE_Aeff) and reflection (SE_R) with frequency in the P‐band (12.4–18 GHz) of PEDOT–DBSA and PEDOT–ferrite composite.
20. Figure 9.20 Shielding effectiveness of PVDF/Ni composites.
21. Figure 9.21 Properties of APCF/epoxy composites: (a) EMI SE and (b) mechanical strength.
22. Figure 9.22 Properties of a Cu/AgNWS/PI film: (a) Variations of SE up to 1.5 GHz, (b) Changes of resistance with repeated bending to a radius of 3 mm. Inset in (a) is SEM image and inset in (b) is an image of bending test setup.
23. Figure 9.23 Electromagnetic properties of foamed and unfoamed MWNT/PCL nanocomposites: (a) conductivity σ, (b) shielding efficiency SE, (c) dielectric constant (ε_r), and (d) reflectivity (R).
24. Figure 9.24 Variations of EMI SE for f‐G/PVDF composites in: (a) broadband range of 1–8 GHz, (b) X‐band range of 8–12 GHz.
25. Figure 9.25 Specific EMI SE of foamed composites of PI‐P, PI‐W, and PI‐WS measured in frequency ranges of (a) 30 MHz to 1.5 GHz and (b) 8–12 GHz. Inset (a) specific EMI SE values at 200, 600, and 1000 MHz. Inset (b) specific EMI SE values of foamed composites at 9.6 GHz.
26. Figure 9.26 (a) Total EMI SE values of as‐fabricated sandwich structures with G–E films of different MLG loadings: 10 (‐□‐), 30 (‐○‐), 50 (‐△‐), and 60 (‐◇‐) vol.%. (b) Absorption shielding (‐●‐), reflection shielding (‐▲‐), and total EMI SE (‐▪‐) coefficients of the sandwich structures coated with G–E films with different MLG loadings at 9 GHz.
27. Figure 9.27 Details of sandwich composites and their EMI shielding capabilities. Matrix A: novolac based epoxy; matrix B: diglycidyl ether of bisphenol‐A (DGEBA) based epoxy.
28. Figure 9.28 Variations of EMI SE as a function of frequency in the X band for: (a) TRGO/UHMWPE segregated composites with various TRGO contents [62], (b) rGO/PS composites with various rGO contents, and (c) variations of EMI SE as a function of volume fraction for rGO/PS composites.
Chapter 10
1. Figure 10.1 Scheme of the system employed for measuring electromagnetic radiation attenuation.
Chapter 11
1. Figure 11.1 (a) Thermally initiated exfoliation of graphite oxide into graphene. (b) Vacuum initiated exfoliation of graphite oxide into graphene.
2. Figure 11.2 Ultrasonic assisted exfoliation of graphite oxide in aqueous medium.
3. Figure 11.3 Mechanism of electromagnetic shielding.
Chapter 12
1. Figure 12.1 Structure of (a) a single‐wall carbon nanotube and (b) a multi‐wall carbon nanotube.
2. Figure 12.2 Different types of carbon nanotube and its vectors.
Chapter 13
1. Figure 13.1 Schematic illustration of the mechanism proposed to account for the growth of AgNWs with pentagonal cross sections: (a) Evolution of a nanorod from a multiply‐twinned nanoparticle (MTP) of silver under the confinement of five twin planes and with the assistance of PVP. The ends of this nanorod are terminated by {111} facets, and the side surfaces are bounded by {100} facets. The strong interaction between PVP and the {100} facets is indicated with a dark‐gray color, and the weak interaction with the {111} facets is marked by a light‐blue color. The red lines on the end surfaces represent the twin boundaries that can serve as active sites for the addition of silver atoms. The plane marked in red shows one of the five twin planes that can serve as the internal confinement for the evolution of nanorods from MTP. (b) Schematic model illustrating the diffusion of silver atoms towards the two ends of a nanorod, with the side surfaces completely passivated by PVP. This drawing shows a projection perpendicular to one of the five side facets of a nanorod, and the arrows represent the diffusion fluxes of silver atoms.
2. Figure 13.2 Illustration of the proposed mechanism by which Fe(II) removes atomic oxygen from the surface of silver nanostructures. Reduction by ethylene glycol (EG) competes with oxidation by atomic oxygen to form an equilibrium between Fe(III) and Fe(II).
3. Figure 13.3 SEM images (a, c, and e) and length distribution (b, d, and f) of synthesized AgNWs by different experimental processes: (a, b) short AgNWs by a conventional AgNW synthesis process following Reference [25] without optimization; (c, d) long AgNWs by an optimized single step growth conditions developed in Reference [39], and (e, f) very long AgNWs by the successive multistep growth (SMG) optimized process [39]. All scale bars in SEM images are 100 μm, and the scale bar in inset of panel E is 4 μm. The length of AgNWs in (a) is under 30 μm.
4. Figure 13.4 SEM images of Ag NWs with a diameter ranging from 20 to 23 nm. (a) As‐synthesized products, (b) purified products, (c) enlarged image, and (d) side‐view image.
5. Figure 13.5 (a) Photograph of the reaction flask after the growth of Ag NWs at 170 °C for 1 h. (b) Scheme demonstrating the process for purification of Ag NWs. (c) Pictures showing the stages of the purification process.
6. Figure 13.6 SEM images of various silver contents (a) 400 phr AgNPs/PVA‐resin, (b) 50 phr AgNWs/PVA‐resin.
7. Figure 13.7 Distribution of AgNWs at different PEO concentrations: (a) without PEO and at (b) 0.25, (c) 0.5, and (d) 2 g 100 ml⁻¹; C_Ag = 9.6 mg ml⁻¹.
8. Figure 13.8 FESEM micrographs of AgNW/polyimide composite foams as the function of nanowires aspect ratio (R) (PIF‐13, R = 79; PIF‐13‐2, R = 47; PIF‐13‐3, R = 34; PIF‐13‐4, R = 25). Inset: morphology of AgNWs used for each sample.
9. Figure 13.9 Conductivity and light transmission of as‐prepared silver nanowire films with different thickness of silver nanowire layer.
10. Figure 13.10 Volume electrical resistivity of AgNPs and AgNWs/PVA‐resin conductive film with various silver contents.
11. Figure 13.11 Electrical conductivity of AgNW/PS versus MWCNT/PS nanocomposites as a function of nanofiller loading.
12. Figure 13.12 EMI shielding effectiveness of films with different thicknesses of the silver nanowire layer.
13. Figure 13.13 (a) EMI shielding effectiveness of AgNWs/polyimide composite foam in different nanowire aspect ratios with respect to the frequency. (b) EMI shielding effectiveness and (c) specific EMI shielding effectiveness of AgNWs/polyimide composite foam with respect to nanowire aspect ratio at 200, 600, and 1000 MHz.
14. Figure 13.14 Effect of silver content on the EMI shielding of the AgNPs/Epoxy and AgNWs/Epoxy conductive films.
15. Figure 13.15 EMI shielding effectiveness (overall, reflection, and absorption) of AgNW/PS and MWCNT/PS nanocomposites as a function of nanofiller loading.
Chapter 14
1. Figure 14.1 Digital photographs and SEM images of MF foam (a, and c) and carbon foam (b, and d) [29].
2. Figure 14.2 SEM image of the prepared carbon foam with a hierarchical porous structure.
3. Figure 14.3 Schematic representation of EMI shielding mechanism of the porous carbon foam.
4. Figure 14.4 (a) Electrical conductivity (at different temperatures) and (b) EMI SE values (at a frequency of 9 GHz) of the prepared carbon foam.
5. Figure 14.5 SEM micrograph of carbon foam derived from coal tar pitch (CTP): (a) absence of ferrocene and (b) with 10 wt% of ferrocene loading, heat treated at 2500 °C.
6. Figure 14.6 Effect of ferrocene content on shielding effectiveness (SE) values of a carbon foam of with ferrocene loadings of (a) 0, (b) 2, (c) 5, and (d) 10 wt%.
7. Figure 14.7 Temperature dependence of DC conductivity of carbon foams of different densities (a) and the temperature dependence of the dielectric permittivity (density of sample is 0.064 g cm⁻³) at a frequency of 26 GHz (b).
8. Figure 14.8 Frequency dependence of complex dielectric permittivity in the MW region for carbon foams of different densities (g cm⁻³) (inset shows carbon foam).
9. Figure 14.9 Schematic illustration of EMI shielding mechanism of GF/PEDOT:PSS.
10. Figure 14.10 Comparison of mean values of SE_T, SE_A, and SE_R for (a) GF/PDMS composites with different porosities and (b) GF/CNT/PDMS composites.
11. Figure 14.11 Schematic representation of EMI shielding mechanism.
12. Figure 14.12 Schematic representation of the fabrication of graphene/PDMS foam composites, the scale bars are 500.
13. Figure 14.13 EMI SE of graphene/PDMS foam composites with different electrical conductivities measured in frequency ranges a) 30 MHz–1.5 GHz, and b) 8–12 GHz.
14. Figure 14.14 Schematic representation of microstructure of C/C and CNT‐C/C composites [44].
15. Figure 14.15 Electrical resistivity of CNT‐C/C composites with various CNT content [44].
16. Figure 14.16 EMI SE of CNTs‐C/C composites with various CNT content in the frequency range 8.2–12.4 GHz [44].
17. Figure 14.17 Schematic representation of EMI shielding mechanism of carbon aerogels.
18. Figure 14.18 Total shielding effectiveness (SE), SE by absorption, and SE by reflection values of CDCA composites of (a) the acid‐treated CDCA, (b) PPy, (c) FCA, and (d) FPCA.
19. Figure 14.19 Total shielding effectiveness (SE), SE by absorption, and SE by reflection values of (a) α‐FeOOH, (b) Fe@C‐6, (c) Fe@C‐3, (d) Fe@C‐1, and (e) Fe@C‐03 as a function of frequency.
20. Figure 14.20 Schematic representation of the EMI shielding mechanism of carbon aerogels.
21. Figure 14.21 (a) AFM topographical image of the colloidal graphite film. Arrows indicate exposed edges of graphene planes. (b) SEM image of a fractured surface of the film originated from colloidal graphite by acetone [58].
22. Figure 14.22 Proposed interaction mechanism between CG and doped PANI [23].
Chapter 15
1. Figure 15.1 Schematic of various types of radiation in space: (a) trapped radiation, (b) galactic cosmic radiation, and (c) solar energetic particles.
2. Figure 15.2 Electromagnetic spectrum.
3. Figure 15.3 Schematic of various aerospace EMI sources.
4. Figure 15.4 Fundamental mechanism of EMI shielding [80, 81].
5. Figure 15.5 (a) Shield enclosure contains radiated emission; (b) shield enclosure excludes radiated emission.
6. Figure 15.6 Schematic structure of meshes: (a) metal wire meshes, (b) iron wire mesh, (c) aluminium wire mesh, and (d) copper wire mesh [95].
7. Figure 15.7 Schematic grouping of the commercially most relevant production methods for metal foams and sponges and some representative trade names and companies [127]. SAS, Slovak Academy of Sciences; AFS, aluminium foam sandwich; ML, melt; PM, powder metallurgical.
8. Figure 15.8 Schematic diagram for conducting coating.
9. Figure 15.9 Schematic representation of single‐walled carbon nanotubes and multiwalled carbon nanotubes.
Chapter 16
1. Figure 16.1 Structure of metamaterial absorber based on the Mie resonance theory produced in the form of cubes and a metallic ground plane; p is the spacing between the particles [42].
2. Figure 16.2 Schematic of the multilayer structure consisting of an Al₂O₃ dielectric layer between two Au films perforated with a square array of holes over a glass substrate [53].
3. Figure 16.3 Unit cell of the cross‐circular‐loop resonator metamaterial absorber; r is the radius of the outer ring, g is the gap between the long wire pairs and the gap between the outer ring and inner ring, w is the width of the outer ring [61].
4. Figure 16.4 Regions 1, 2, and 3 are fixed at 120° to each other. Region 4 is shielded completely. Region 2 shields region 4 from the 3 GHz frequency, region 3 shields the same region 4 from 1 GHz frequency, while the region 1 shields from the 2 GHz. The design can be used simultaneously with 1, 2, and 3 GHz frequencies and the shields working as per its functionality with respect to the fields coming from the specific directions. Here, regions 1, 2 and 3 represent metamaterial coats while region 4 is the shielded area [64].
5. Figure 16.5 Copper split ring resonator (SRR); c is the width of the inner ring, d is the distance between the inner and the outer rings, and r is the inner radius of the inner ring [66].
6. Figure 16.6 Schematic diagram showing the layers of square superconducting plates combined into a tetragonal lattice. The magnetic field lines are pushed into the gaps between the plates. The arrow through the central plate shows the induced magnetic dipole moment [76].
7. Figure 16.7 Schematic of optimum single‐cell absorber. R is the resistor; a, b, c, d, and e are the dimensions of the absorber; t₁ and t₂ are the thickness of polyimide and silicone rubber [85].
8. Figure 16.8 Near field metamaterial (NF‐MM) shield used to block fields from wireless power transfer from penetrating below the shield [16].
9. Figure 16.9 A negative refractive index medium bends light to a negative angle with the surface normal. Light formerly diverging from a point source is set in reverse and converges back to a point. Released from the medium the light reaches a focus for a second time [94].
Chapter 17
1. Figure 17.1 Illustration of double percolating phenomena for carbon nanotube‐containing polymer composite [2].
2. Figure 17.2 Schematic of common phase morphologies of polymer blend/filler system [8]. See text for details.
3. Figure 17.3 TEM image of CB filled (a) HDPE/PMMA and (b) PMMA/PP blends [1].
4. Figure 17.4 TEM micrograph of PS/EVA (70 : 30 w/w) composition loaded with 5 wt% CB [9].
5. Figure 17.5 EMI SE of the PS, EVS, and PS/EVA (70 : 30 w/w) blend containing different amounts of CB: (a) 0, (b) 2, (c) 5, (d) 7.5, (e) 10, and (f) 15 wt% [9].
6. Figure 17.6 Frequency versus EMI SE of EVA/NBR 25/75 and 75/25 (shown in inset) Conductex carbon black filled composite [1].
7. Figure 17.7 TEM image of 10 vol.% CB‐filled: (a) (25/75) PP/PS, (b) (50/50) PP/PS, (c) (75/25) PP/PS, and (d) (50/50) PP/PS containing 5 vol.% SBS [11].
8. Figure 17.8 SE of different PP/PS blends filled with 10 vol.% CB as a function of frequency [11].
9. Figure 17.9 SEM micrographs of 1.5 phr vapor grown carbon nanofiber (VGCF)‐filled HDPE/iPP (40/60) [12].
10. Figure 17.10 DC conductivity versus MWCNT loading for PC/MWCNT nanocomposites. The inset in (a) represents the plot for log dc versus log(p – pc) for the same nanocomposites [16].
11. Figure 17.11 Plot of frequency versus total shielding effectiveness for filled PC/SAN (50/50) blends with different types of MWCNTs; MWCNT‐I, NH₂ modified multiwall carbon nanotubes; MWCNT‐II, diazonium reaction of the para‐substituted benzene ring of MWCNTs with ethylene diamine (EDA); MWCNT‐III, acylation of carboxyl functionalized MWCNTs with thionyl chloride [17].
12. Figure 17.12 (a) EMI SE versus CNT loading as a function of frequency for the UHPE/EVA/CNT composite, (b) microwave reflection, and (c) microwave absorption of the UHPE/EVA/CNT composites as a function of CNT loading in the frequency range of 8.2–12.4 GHz. (d) comparison of SE_total, SE_A, and SE_R at the frequency of 10. 3 GHz for the UHPE/EVA/CNT composites with various CNT loadings [18].
13. Figure 17.13 Schematic for fabrication of the double‐segregated CNT/PMMA/UHMWPE composites [21].
14. Figure 17.14 (a) EMI SE in the X‐band of the CNT/PMMA, neat UHMWPE and double‐segregated composites. (b) Comparison of average EMI SE, SE_A, and SE_R at various CNT loadings. (c) Comparison of EMI SE, SE_A, and SE_R for the double‐segregated composite with 0.8 wt% CNT loading [23].
15. Figure 17.15 Total shielding effectiveness as a function of frequency for PC/SAN (50/50) blends [21].
16. Figure 17.16 TEM micrographs of thin sections of blends with (a) 1 wt% graphene and (b) 1 wt% G‐Ni [27].
17. Figure 17.17 Total shielding effectiveness as a function of frequency for PC/SAN blends in X‐ and Ku‐bands [27].
Chapter 18
1. Figure 18.1 Principle of the digital image correlation method.
2. Figure 18.2 Schematic representation of the moiré interferometry principle [17].
3. Figure 18.3 Optical path of transmittance caustics [40, 41].
4. Figure 18.4 Optical path of transmittance CGS [48, 49].
5. Figure 18.5 Principle of CGS [48, 49].
6. Figure 18.6 Schematic of the experimental setup for DGS.
7. Figure 18.7 Schematic of the working principle of DGS.

List of Contributors

Jiji Abraham
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala
India

A. R. Ajitha
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala
India

Halina Aniołczyk
Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine
Lodz
Poland

P. Mohammed Arif
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala
India

M. K. Aswathi
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala
India

Julija Baltušnikaitė‐Guzaitienė
Center for Physical Sciences and Technology
Textile Institute
Kaunas
Lithuania

Yogesh S. Choudhary
Department of Chemistry
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
India

Saju Daniel
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala
India
St. Xavier's College Vaikom
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala
India

Suwarna Datar
Department of Applied Physics
Defence Institute of Advanced Technology
Deemed University
Girinagar, Pune 411021
India

Aastha Dutta
Department of Plastic and Polymer Engineering, G.S. Mandal’s Maharashtra Institute of Technology
Aurangabad, Maharashtra
India

V. G. Geethamma
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala
India

N. Gomathi
Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
India

Wenfeng Hao
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Mechanics
Jiangsu University
Zhenjiang, Jiangsu
P. R. China

Jun Pyo Hong
Center for Materials Architecturing
Korea Institute of Science and Technology
Seoul
Republic of Korea

Jemy James
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala
India

School of pure and Applied Physics
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala
India

FRE CNRS 3744, IRDL
University of Southern Brittany
Lorient
France

Maciej Jaroszewski
Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Wrocław University of Science and Technology
Wrocław
Poland

Jickson Joseph
School of Chemistry, Physics and Mechanical Engineering, Queensland University of Technology
Brisbane, Queensland 4000
Australia

CSIRO−QUT Joint Sustainable Processes and Devices Laboratory, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
P. O. Box 218, Lindfield
New South Wales 2070
Australia

Kuruvilla Joseph
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
India

Chong Min Koo
Center for Materials Architecturing
Korea Institute of Science and Technology
Seoul
Republic of Korea

Nanomaterials Science and Engineering
University of Science and Technology
Daejeon
Republic of Korea

KU‐KIST Graduate School of Converging Science and Technology, Korea University Seoul
Republic of Korea

Pradip Kumar
Center for Materials Architecturing
Korea Institute of Science and Technology
Seoul
Republic of Korea

Jia Li
Ningbo Institute of Material Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Ningbo
P. R. China

Seung Hwan Lee
Center for Materials Architecturing
Korea Institute of Science and
Technology
Seoul
Republic of Korea

B. J. Madhu
Department of Post Graduate Studies in Physics, Government Science College
Chitradurga 577 501, Karnataka
India

Raghvendra Kumar Mishra
International and Inter University
Centre for Nanoscience and
Nanotechnology
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala
India

Priyanka Mishra
Deen Dayal Upadhyay Gorakhpur University
Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh
India

Mohsen Mohseni
Department of Polymer Engineering and Color Technology, Amirkabir University of Technology
Tehran
Iran

Vishnu Priya Murali
Department of Biomedical Engineering
University of Memphis
Memphis, Tennessee
USA

K. Nandakkumar
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala
India

School of Pure and Applied Physics
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala
India

Kostya (Ken) Ostrikov
School of Chemistry, Physics and Mechanical Engineering, Queensland University of Technology
Brisbane, Queensland 4000
Australia

CSIRO−QUT Joint Sustainable Processes and Devices Laboratory, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
P. O. Box 218, Lindfield
New South Wales 2070
Australia

Saurabh Parmar
Department of Applied Physics
Defence Institute of Advanced Technology
Deemed University
Girinagar, Pune 411021
India

Ajay V. Rane
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala
India

Composite Research Group
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Durban University of Technology
Durban
South Africa

Bishakha Ray
Department of Applied Physics
Defence Institute of Advanced Technology
Deemed University
Girinagar, Pune 411021
India

Faisal Shahzad
National Center for Nanotechnology
Department of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS)
Islamabad
Pakistan

Center for Materials Architecturing
Korea Institute of Science and Technology
Seoul
Republic of Korea

Nanomaterials Science and Engineering
University of Science and Technology
Daejeon
Republic of Korea

Wenfeng Shen
Ningbo Institute of Material Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Ningbo
P. R. China

Weijie Song
Ningbo Institute of Material
Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Ningbo
P. R. China

Anu Surendran
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala
India

Can Tang
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Mechanics
Jiangsu University
Zhenjiang, Jiangsu
P. R. China

M. D. Teli
Department of Fibres and Textile Processing Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga (E)
Mumbai, Maharashtra
India

Martin George Thomas
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala
India

Sabu Thomas
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala
India

School of Chemical Sciences
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala
India

Sanket P. Valia
Department of Fibres and Textile Processing Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga (E)
Mumbai, Maharashtra
India

Sandra Varnaitė‐Žuravliova
Center for Physical Sciences and Technology
Textile Institute
Kaunas
Lithuania

Feng Xu
Ningbo Institute of Material Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Ningbo
P. R. China

Wei Xu
Ningbo Institute of Material Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Ningbo
P. R. China

Hossein Yahyaei
Department of Polymer Engineering and Color Technology, Amirkabir University of Technology
Tehran
Iran

Seunggun Yu
Center for Materials Architecturing
Korea Institute of Science and Technology
Seoul
Republic of Korea

Qiang Zhang
Department of Materials Science
Key Laboratory of Advanced Structure‐Function Integrated Materials and Green Manufacturing Technology
School of Materials Science and Engineering
Harbin Institute of Technology
Harbin
P. R. China

Jianguo Zhu
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Mechanics
Jiangsu University
Zhenjiang, Jiangsu
P. R. China

Advanced Materials for Electromagnetic Shielding

Fundamentals, Properties, and Applications

List of Contributors