Table of Contents

Cover

Title

Preface

1 Perspectives and Transitions in Ergonomics

1.1. History and definition of ergonomics
1.2. Classification and positioning of ergonomics
1.3. A systems approach in ergonomics
1.4. Design-driven versus a human-centered approach
1.5. Focus on performance and well-being

2 Management and Ergonomic Approaches toward Innovation and Design

2.1. History and definition of strategy
2.2. Management and design frameworks supporting PE
2.3. Aligning generic strategies with innovation approaches through worldview perspectives
2.4. Toward integrated thinking in PE: relating C-K design theory, generic strategies and design reasoning models
2.5. A PSS perspective

3 Ergonomic Interventions on Management Frameworks

3.1. A comparison of ergonomic interventions with strategic design and management perspectives
3.2. Ergonomic interventions on management frameworks
3.3. Summary

4 Research Organization

4.1. Overview
4.2. What is case study research and how can it be applied here?
4.3. Description and interpretation of dimensions of analysis
4.4. Preparing cases and summarizing terminologies; worldviews, modes of design reasoning, generic strategies and interventions

5 Analysis of 12 Design Case Studies

5.1. Introduction
5.2. Analysis of cases within corrective ergonomic intervention
5.3. Analysis of cases within preventive ergonomic intervention
5.4. Analysis of cases within prospective ergonomic intervention

6 Cross-Comparison of Cases

6.1. Introduction
6.2. Cross-comparison of cases within the context of deliberate/planned processes and targeted outcomes profit maximization/problem solving
6.3. Cross-comparison of cases within the context of emergent processes and targeted outcomes: profit maximization/problem solving
6.4. Cross-comparison of cases within the context of deliberate processes and pluralistic outcomes
6.5. Comparison of case clusters across the four quadrants
6.6. Qualitative analysis of cases according to intervention, worldviews, models of design reasoning and generic strategies

7 Discussion

7.1. Introduction
7.2. Orientation
7.3. Processes and methods
7.4. Practices
7.5. Value creation
7.6. Implications for design education
7.7. General perspectives on PE and strategic design
7.8. Author’s perspectives on PE and strategic design

Conclusion and Further Research

Bibliography

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

1 Perspectives and Transitions in Ergonomics

Table 1.1. Classification of ergonomics according to domain, intervention, focus and specialization

3 Ergonomic Interventions on Management Frameworks

Table 3.1. Comparison between prospective ergonomics and strategic design involving their respective roots, classical ergonomics and strategic management

6 Cross-Comparison of Cases

Table 6.1. Cross-comparison of cases within the context of deliberate/planned processes and targeted outcomes of profit maximization/problem solving
Table 6.2. Cross-comparison of cases within the context of emergent processes and targeted outcomes of profit maximization/problem solving
Table 6.3. Cross-comparison of cases within the context of deliberate processes and targeted outcomes of profit maximization/problem solving
Table 6.4. Ergonomic and design interventions juxtaposed against worldviews, models of design reasoning and generic strategies

List of Illustrations

1 Perspectives and Transitions in Ergonomics

Figure 1.1. Interaction among product and service design, business strategies and preventive ergonomics toward prospective ergonomics
Figure 1.2. Alignment of the product development process with different ergonomic interventions (adopted from [NEL 12, p. 9])
Figure 1.3. Dimensions in white apply to general ergonomics. Dimensions highlighted in gray specifically apply to PE

2 Management and Ergonomic Approaches toward Innovation and Design

Figure 2.1. Selected theoretical frameworks and methods to conceptualize prospective ergonomics
Figure 2.2. Rationalist-historicist and empirical-idealistic dimensions contextualized and positioned according to different technology-push and market-pull approaches (adopted from [MØR 11, p. 214]
Figure 2.3. Overview of presented worldviews and design theories [LIE 14]
Figure 2.4. Overview of generic strategy perspectives [WHI 01]
Figure 2.5. Alignment of innovation approaches with generic strategies through a worldview perspective
Figure 2.6. Extension of generic strategies to models of design reasoning based upon philosophical worldviews ([LIE 14], adapted from [WHI 01, Figure 2.1, p. 10])

3 Ergonomic Interventions on Management Frameworks

Figure 3.1. Ergonomic domains, interventions and specializations contextualized within push-pull innovation initiatives
Figure 3.2. Ergonomic domains, interventions and specializations contextualized within four strategy perspectives
Figure 3.3. Ergonomic domains, interventions and specializations contextualized within Ansoff’s PMT-matrix
Figure 3.4. Ergonomic domains, interventions and specializations contextualized within the value creation product positioning map (adapted from [CAG 02])
Figure 3.5. Ergonomic domains, interventions and specializations contextualized within design-driven innovation
Figure 3.6. Ergonomic interventions contextualized within a co-creation framework of design research and practice (adapted from [SAN 08])
Figure 3.7. Alignments and differences between compatible macroergonomic and strategic management perspectives at different levels of comprehensiveness

5 Analysis of 12 Design Case Studies

Figure 5.1. Low-cost USB memory stick for enticing prospective credit card customers
Figure 5.2. Covered video observation still capture with stick figure superimposed on user
Figure 5.3. The simulation of check-in queues at the Singapore MRT station
Figure 5.4. A systems approach in the development of mail production and distribution concept, considering market and technological developments
Figure 5.5. (a–c) Analysis and concept development of a front-seat mail sorter
Figure 5.6. (a–c) Examples of user testing and detailing and prototype development
Figure 5.7. An example of an interior classroom setup for elementary school pupils, designed from a systems and product perspective
Figure 5.8. An example of indented walls in Singapore apartment housing
Figure 5.9. The “flexible shelf” consists of standard components to be assembled to achieve any desired width–length ratio
Figure 5.10. Interacting with electronic on-board communication equipment in the front interior of the vehicle
Figure 5.11. Foam models to explore the positioning of equipment in the front and rear interior of the vehicles
Figure 5.12. Retrieval of equipment form rear-interior of Mitsubishi and Volvo
Figure 5.13. Rucksack bag design to facilitate optimum loading
Figure 5.14. a) Positioning of strategic design projects on product-market matrix; b) Positioning of strategic design projects on Cagan and Vogel’s positioning map (2002)
Figure 5.15. Workshop with “stakeholders” revealing existing knowledge and concerns around fish health
Figure 5.16. Use of cocreation tools and methods to map out the context and generate ideas
Figure 5.17. Example of a design submission, where the student demonstrated poor manual representation, but good CAD modeling skills

6 Cross-Comparison of Cases

Figure 6.1. Projects classified according to ergonomic intervention with their domains and specializations
Figure 6.2. An overview of the 12 cases positioned within a generic strategy map and characterized according to ergonomic and design intervention
Figure 6.3. An overview of the 12 cases positioned according to worldview and design reasoning mode
Figure 6.4. Twelve cases positioned and juxtaposed according to ergonomic and design intervention

7 Discussion

Figure 7.1. Positioning design education within the context of “market forces” and “active learning” [LIE 14]
Figure 7.2. Alignment of the product development process with different ergonomic interventions (adapted from [NEL 13])

Conclusion and Further Research

Figure 1. Relations between specific “processes, methods and tools”, “perspectives and mindsets” and “challenges”, and how an integrated view connects with prospective ergonomics
Figure 2. Transitioning from the current to a future versatile mailbox
Figure 3. The mailbox is positioned at the intersection of the private and the public realm
Figure 4. Future stakeholder constellation centered around the “versatile mailbox”

Preface

My motivation to write this book on strategic design and prospective ergonomics (PE) has been driven by more than 20 years of experiences as an educator, researcher and design practitioner.

As user needs become increasingly complex, I stress the importance of strategic management for PE and strategic design. Forces of globalization, the proliferation of multicultural societies and emphasis on user experiences have changed the ergonomic, business and design landscape. The concept of “user experience”, with respect to products and services, whether in terms of purely use, ownership or a combination of it, has become a topic of debate among designers, ergonomists, user interaction experts, business management and social science authorities.

Moreover, the significant growth of new technologies has revolutionized the way firms use these technologies both internally and externally to improve operations, increase efficiencies and provide functional benefits for customers. For example, in the service industry, providers and retailers are using a wide range of self-service technologies, including the internet, to allow customers to produce and consume services electronically without direct contact from firm employees [MEU 00]. At present and in the future, these new technologies will continue to challenge the different stakeholders, who are engaged in “innovation”; a process of transforming an idea or invention into a good or service that creates value for customers (www.businessdictionary.com).

However, when adopting a more sustainable and altruistic perspective toward innovation, the discrepancy between technology-driven positivism and the desired role of technology in society can be perceived as one of the largest paradoxes of our time.

In this book, I attempt to develop a prospective ergonomic framework to structure and connect generic strategies [WHI 01], worldviews and modes of design reasoning. As exemplified in Whittington’s perspectives on strategizing¹, I have been convinced during these years that the main objectives in business and design are broader than just profit maximization and sales. Different stakeholders have diverse ambitions and interests, and designers are creating new roles for themselves in response to new industrial and societal challenges. The current attention on designing experiences, whether tangible or intangible, has placed a significant emphasis on human-centered and design-driven approaches, methods and tools.

Within the polarities of deliberate versus emergent “processes” and targeted versus plural “outcomes”, I am convinced that strong similarities between generic strategies and modes of design reasoning can be identified, which may justify a typical ergonomic or design intervention. For example, a classical approach in strategizing resembles a problem solving approach in designing. Both activities are based upon deliberate processes and outcomes are in terms of management “profit maximization”, whereas in design it is about “solving a design problem”. Furthermore, similarities between design and strategic management/innovation are noticeable in the transient application of methods and tools. For example, visual tools, which are predominantly assistive in projecting an imaginary vision of the future, can be applied in both fields. In other words, the convergence of strategizing perspectives and modes of design reasoning, complemented by their methods and tools brings us to the core of “prospective ergonomics”, which is characterized by its anticipative and imaginary nature [ROB 09].

In this work, I argue for a prospective turn in ergonomics to challenge the established fields of strategic design and management. Differences, similarities and relationships between strategic design and PE are being reviewed using existing theories and frameworks from design, ergonomics, strategic and innovation management. PE has developed from corrective and preventive ergonomics to be more “forward looking in time” by emphasizing on context, user-experience and human-centeredness. In terms of practice, PE creates awareness among actors that the anticipation of user needs and imagination of radically new products and services are essential for the survival of organizations, their business ecosystems, and formation of societal contexts. The latter encourages PE to adopt stances and reinvent social contexts, which have been impacted by technological advancement and disruptive innovation. Considering the complex constellation of collaborators and context embeddedness in specific design and development projects, PE interventions particularly support innovation activities, which capitalize on deliberate processes by making use of prescriptive methods and tools as well as by aiming for pluralistic results. In the first instance, this book presents several theoretical frameworks to discern the relationship between PE and SD, built upon existing business management and innovation theories. To complement the theoretical part, 12 cases have been organized and analyzed in greater depth according to four main dimensions of analysis. These dimensions were as follows: (1) orientation, (2) type of design reasoning models they were subjected to, (3) their significance for practice, and finally (4) their value contribution to society and stakeholders. Furthermore, cross comparisons were made based upon these dimensions of analysis and reference to how these cases were positioned according to a generic strategy framework. From an educational perspective, results have implicated how design knowledge and skills should be transferred to students. Namely, a hermeneutic, reflective and participatory mode of designing, supported by a constructivist worldview, requires a mentorship and scholarship approach in research- or practice-based learning. In the discussion and conclusion sections, outcomes from individual cases as well as their cross-comparisons have been taken into account by theoretical frameworks in answering five research questions. These outcomes have indicated that innovating through a PE approach is about finding the right balance between, on the one hand, meeting primary objectives, such as profit maximization or solving the design problem, and, on the other hand, achieving social and human well-being, personal interest and ambitions, family relations, etc. Moreover, intervention of PE within a classical strategy perspective requires organizations to couple push–pull market strategies while considering the interest of different stakeholders throughout all stages of the development process. This means that prescriptive approaches, methods and tools in the positivist mode should be complemented with constructive modes of reasoning and designing as well as reflective methods and tools, while taking into consideration all levels and perspectives of value creation.

In future research, I suggest developing sustainable product-service innovation, business and design strategies to become more pluralistic and contextually embedded in nature, whether deliberate or emergent. Involving the participation of a broad network of stakeholders, these strategies are to be applied to selected key areas such as (1) processes, methods and tools, (2) perspectives and mindsets and (3) challenges pertaining to typical focal areas within the context of PE. Identified focal areas are (1) aesthetics and experience design, (2) transportation design, (3) culture, acculturation and interaction design, (4) service design, (5) inclusive design and (6) healthcare and welfare design.

To further elaborate on the above, providing organizations with an understanding of the situated context and dynamic interaction among stakeholders is more important than helping them to positivistically aim for precise, logical and rational innovations and designs. This can be established by creating awareness among researchers, ergonomists and designers that constructivist, reflective and hermeneutic methods and practices are increasingly taking center stage in PE. Moreover, the need for more prominent constructive approaches has been instigated by a change in outlook from different actors in business settings to be more pluralistic oriented, as well as emerging trends and developments in the areas of sustainable product and service design, welfare technologies, corporate social responsibility, etc.

On a personal note, based upon my technical educational background in industrial design engineering (TU Delft), and my current employment at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of Product Design, I am predominantly approaching and writing this book from a positivistic and structured perspective. However, having frequent interactions with other non-engineering institutions in design teaching and research has guided me to adopt a broader perspective toward designing and design processes, acknowledging and promoting reflective, hermeneutic and participative modes of thinking through more constructivist worldviews.

André LIEM
August 2017