Cover: Atmospheric Science for Environmental Scientists, Second by C.N. Hewitt and Andrea V. Jackson

Atmospheric Science for Environmental Scientists

Edited by


C.N. Hewitt

Lancaster University
Lancaster, UK


and


Andrea V. Jackson

University of Leeds
Leeds, UK


Second Edition






No alt text required.

List of Contributors

Janet Barlow

Department of Meteorology
University of Reading
Reading, UK

Peter Brimblecombe

School of Energy and Environment
City University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong

Martyn P. Chipperfield

School of Earth and Environment
University of Leeds
Leeds, UK

Hugh Coe

School of Earth, Atmospheric, and Environmental Sciences
The University of Manchester
Manchester, UK

Nick Hewitt

Lancaster Environment Centre
Lancaster University
Lancaster, UK

Atul Jain

Department of Atmospheric Sciences
University of Illinois
Urbana, IL, USA

Anwar Khan

School of Chemistry
University of Bristol
Bristol, UK

John Lockwood

Formerly University of Leeds
Leeds, UK

A. Rob MacKenzie

School of Geography
Earth and Environmental Sciences
University of Birmingham
Birmingham, UK

Paul Monks

Department of Chemistry
University of Leicester
Leicester, UK

Dudley Shallcross

School of Chemistry
University of Bristol
Bristol, UK

Zongbo Shi

School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Science
The University of Birmingham
Birmingham, UK

Natalie Theeuwes

Department of Meteorology
University of Reading
Reading, UK

Joshua Vande Hey

Department of Chemistry
University of Leicester
Leicester, UK

Richard Wayne

Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory
Department of Chemistry
University of Oxford
Oxford, UK

Paul I. Williams

School of Earth and Environmental Sciences & National Centre for Atmospheric Science
The University of Manchester
Manchester, UK

Xiaoming Xu

Department of Atmospheric Sciences
University of Illinois
Urbana, IL, USA

Preface

When we wrote the Preface to the first edition of ‘Atmospheric Science for Environmental Scientists’ in 2008, we noted that never before had the teaching, learning, and researching of atmospheric science been so important. We said that society must face up to the realities of global atmospheric change, including global warming and poor air quality, and that the education of students and provision of accessible information to policy makers and the public were priorities.

More than a decade later, we can only reiterate these sentiments. In 2018, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change warned that the planet will reach the crucial threshold of 1.5 °C above pre‐industrial levels by as early as 2030, precipitating the risks of extreme drought, wildfires, floods, and food shortages for hundreds of millions of people. And in 2018, the World Health Organization reported that 90% of the world's population lived in places where air quality exceeded WHO guideline limits, and that more than 4 million people a year died prematurely from outdoor air pollution and a further 3 million a year from indoor air pollution.

What further warnings are needed? To help society cope with the unprecedented changes that humankind is causing to our fragile atmosphere, education must be key and policy makers must act. We hope this book helps both causes.

In putting this book together, we have drawn on some of the best experts and educators in the field of atmospheric science. We hope their knowledge and enthusiasm shines through in these chapters. Our aim is to provide succinct but detailed information on all the important aspects of atmospheric science for students of environmental science and to others who are interested in learning how the atmosphere works, how humankind is changing its composition, and what effects these changes might lead to.

We are grateful to all the experts who have contributed to this book, for all reviewers' comments, and to all our students over the years who have demonstrated the need for this volume.

October 2019

Nick Hewitt
Andrea V. Jackson

Abbreviations, Constants, and Nomenclature

ADMS
Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling System
CEE
Central and eastern Europe
CCN
cloud condensation nuclei
CFC
chlorofluorocarbons
CO2
carbon dioxide
DMS
dimethyl sulphide
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid
EC
elemental carbon
EM
electromagnetic
ENSO
El Niño–Southern Oscillation
EPA
Environmental Protection Agency
EU
European Union
GDP
global domestic product
GEMS/AIR
Global Environmental Monitoring System/Air
GHG
greenhouse gas
HAP
hazardous air pollutant
HCFC
hydrochlorofluorocarbons
HFC
hydrofluorocarbons
IAM
integrated assessment models
IBL
internal boundary layer
IPCC
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IR
infrared
ISAM
integrated science assessment model
ITCZ
intertropical convergence zone
LAI
leaf‐area index
LW
longwave
NMHC
non‐methane hydrocarbons
MAP
major air pollutant
MTBE
methyl‐tert‐butyl ether
NDVI
normalized difference vegetation index
OCS
carbonyl sulphide
OECD
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
PAH
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PAN
peroxyacetyl nitrate
PAR
photosynthetically active radiation
PCB
polychlorinated biphenyls
PFC
perfluorogenated carbon
PM
particulate matter
PM10
particles with aerodynamic diameter less than 10 μm
ppm
parts per million
ppmv
part per million by volume (1 × 10−6)
ppbv
part per billion by volume (1 × 10−9)
pptv
part per trillion by volume (1 × 10−12)
PSS
photostationary state
SAFARI
South African Regional Science Initiative
SW
shortwave
TSP
total suspended particulates
UNEP
United Nations Environmental Programme
UV
ultraviolet
VSLS
very short‐lived substances
VOC
volatile organic compounds
WHO
World Health Organization
WMO
World Meteorological Organization

Constants

c
speed of light in vacuum 2.998 × 108 m s−1
g
acceleration due to gravity 9.8 m s−2
h
Planck’s constant 6.626 × 1034 J s
k
Boltzmann constant 1.381 × 1034 J K−1
R
gas constant 8.314 J K−1 mol−1 (1.3 × 105 l atm mol−1 K−1)
Γd
dry adiabatic lapse rate 9.81 K km−1
π
3.14159
σ
Stefan–Boltzmann constant 5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4

Nomenclature

a
radius of a particle
A
albedo
A s
surface albedo
B
radiative intensity of a blackbody
c p
specific heat capacity of dry air at constant pressure (1004 J kg−1 K−1)
c v
specific heat at constant volume
C
concentration (ppm or kg m−3)
d
preface to variable indicating incremental quantity
d
displacement height (m)
dQ
incremental change in heat
du
incremental change in internal energy
dv
incremental change in volume
dw
incremental change in work
e
turbulent kinetic energy per unit mass (J kg−1)
F B
the total flux from a black body radiator
F s
incoming solar radiation absorbed at the surface
F
net flux
F
upwelling radiative flux
F
downwelling radiative flux
images
net flux leaving an element or layer
F r
total upward reflected shortwave flux
F 0
incident solar flux
G
ground heat flux (W m−2)
h
mean height of roughness elements (m)
h b
depth of internal boundary layer (m)
H
sensible heat flux (W m−2) or mean building height (m)
H s
scale height
H/W
aspect ratio (‐)
I
intensity of light
I 0
initial intensity of light
k
von Kármán’s constant ≈ 0.4 (‐)
k a
absorption coefficient
k e
extinction coefficient
k s
scattering coefficient
l
distance through a gas interacting with light
L
latent heat of vaporization
L
Obukhov length (m)
L w
Liquid water content
L x
integral (or decorrelation) lengthscale (m)
m
refractive index
M
molar mass (of air unless otherwise specified)
n
number concentration, typically of absorbers or scatterers
p(u)
probability of windspeed u (‐)
P
plant area index (‐)
P, p
pressure
q
specific humidity (kg kg−1, sometimes g kg−1) or source emission rate (kg s−1)
q *
scaling parameter for specific humidity profile (kg kg−1, sometimes g kg−1)
r
radial distance
r v
mass mixing ratio of water vapour
r w
saturation mixing ratio
r r
scattered fraction reflected upwards
R
radius of the Earth
R(λ)
action spectrum
R n
net radiation (W m−2)
S
Solar constant
Sk u
skewness statistic for downstream component of the wind (‐)
Sk w
skewness statistic for vertical component of the wind (‐)
t
time (s)
t r
scattered fraction transmitted downwards
t t
total fraction of radiation transmitted downwards
T
temperature
T a
transmittance of the atmosphere
T e
effective blackbody temperature of the Earth
T L
integral timescale (s)
T *
scaling parameter for temperature profile (°C)
u
downstream velocity component (m s−1)
images
mean component (m s−1)
u
fluctuation around mean component (m s−1)
u *
friction velocity (m s−1)
U
velocity vector (m s−1)
images (z)
vertical mean wind profile (m s−1)
images
mean windspeed at the top of a canopy (m s−1)
v
lateral velocity component (m s−1)
w
vertical velocity component (m s−1)
W
along wind building spacing (m)
x
horizontal distance in downstream direction (m)
y
horizontal distance in lateral direction (m)
z
distance, usually altitude (m)
z h
roughness length for heat transfer (m)
z m
height of maximum plant area index (m)
z 0
roughness length for momentum transfer (m)
z 0r
roughness length for rural surface (m)
z 0u
roughness length for urban surface (m)
z q
roughness length for moisture transfer (m)
z*
roughness sublayer depth (m)
z/L
Monin‐Obukhov stability parameter (‐)
σ
standard deviation (depends on quantity)
σ x
downstream plume spread (m)
σ y
lateral plume spread (m)
σ z
vertical plume spread (m)
σ(λ)
absorption cross section as a function of wavelength
β
upscatter or backscatter fraction
γ s
saturated adiabatic lapse rate
∆S
storage term (W m−2)
∆T
temperature difference between rural and urban areas (or heat island intensity) (°C)
preface to variable indicating incremental quantity
θ
scattering angle, or potential temperature (°C or K)
θ 0
potential temperature at the surface (°C or K)
ε
emissivity
λ
wavelength of light
λE
latent heat flux (W m−2)
λ F
frontal area index (‐)
ρ
air density (1.2 kg m−3)
ρ v
density of water vapour
ρ a
density of dry air
ρ NIR
ratio of emitted to incident near infra‐red radiation (‐)
ρ VIS
ratio of emitted to incident visible radiation (‐)
χ
optical depth
τ
momentum flux, or shear stress (kg m−1 s−2)
υ e
extinction coefficient (‐)
ω 0
single scattering albedo
ψ m
stability function for momentum (‐)