Introduction

This book is comprised of 42 complementary sheets exploring logistics. Each sheet provides a key point, in-depth analysis and dedicated references.

I.1. Sheet 1: The Logistics Function

Key point

The logistics function is central in and between companies. Some even say that without logistics, there can be no professional activity. The importance of its evolution is reflected throughout the 20th and 21st Centuries. Generally speaking, there are five key dates. Before the war of 1939–1945, we were in a “stewardship” rationale. We managed production activity as best we could. From 1945 to the 1970s – the period of the Glorious Thirty – attention was paid to the physical flow and in particular the downstream flow of distribution. We were in a “mass consumption” phase, where the company’s interest was to deliver as many products as possible to the maximum number of customers. We were in a “standardization” rationale here, in an approach known as “push flow”. Industrialization and competition in the 1980s forced companies to tightly control their costs. This financial control was part of logistics activity, through the implementation of analytical accounting (often evaluated using Activity-Based Costing) which allowed us to assess the profitability of a product and/or a range of products. The 1990s highlighted the “flow of information” as a key issue in logistics. By this, we mean the importance of “customization”, a “pull-flow” approach where the customer’s “fixed and definitive order”¹ is the one that “triggers” production. This period would underscore the shift from a “logistics strategy” (support for strategy) to a “strategic logistics” (strategy foundation) [FAB 94]. At the dawn of the 21st Century, we refer to “sustainable supply chain management”, in the sense of sustainable development. The economic, environmental and social/societal roles of logistics are highlighted here [MOR 13].

I.1.1. Definitions related to the supply chain

Several definitions are linked to the supply chain. These include ASLOG (Association française de la Supply Chain et de la Logistique) and CSCMP (Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals).

For ASLOG, the supply chain is defined as “the global supply chain, which goes from supplier to customer and where production is demand-driven. Its objective: the right product in the right place, at the right time”. For CSCMP, the supply chain is apprehended “1) starting with unprocessed raw materials and ending with the final customer using the finished goods, the supply chain links many companies together; 2) the material and informational interchanges in the logistical process stretching from acquisition of raw materials to delivery of finished products to the end user. All vendors, service providers and customers are links in the supply chain”.

Nevertheless, only the definition of the AFNOR standard NF X 50-600 (1999) prevails. It is not about supply chain, but logistics. In this regard, it can be said that “logistics is defined as the planning, execution and control of the movements and implementations of people, goods and support activities related to these movements and implementations, within an organized system to achieve specific objectives. […] The purpose of the logistics function is to satisfy expressed or latent needs at the best economic conditions and for a given level of service”.

Seven main stages are assigned to the logistics process by the experts of this standard (derived from [GIA 03]):

– “identify the market needs in terms of quality of service and determine the objectives for quality of service;
– design the logistics system and the organization of the flow chain; define the logistic characteristics of the product (needs and constraints), those of the after-sales system;
– develop the logistics system, organization, procedures and logistic information systems, after-sales service system, packaging and guarantee the availability of operational resources;
– production, in other words, implement industrial processes and systems, plan and schedule material and service requirements, procurement;
– selling, in other words, implement distribution procedures and systems, storing, packaging, dispatching, transporting and installing products; control the execution of transport and distribution operations; managing returns;
– support, in other words, implement maintenance procedures and systems, repair and distribution of parts; acquire, store, package, ship, transport and deliver parts; maintain and repair products; recover and recycle products;
– control the performance of the logistics system: exploit the results, compare them with objectives, make corrections, anticipate…”

I.1.2. Definitions related to Supply Chain Management

Since the 1990s, the term “Supply Chain Management” has been gaining popularity. Supply Chain Management is the management of global logistics. This global management underlines the strategic, intra- and inter-organizational role of logistics. One of the main differences between supply chain and Supply Chain Management is that in Supply Chain Management, there is a clear desire to establish long-term partnerships in order to share gains and losses.

It was through the writings of Martin Christopher [CHR 92] that the notion of Supply Chain Management (SCM) took off. At the time, he defined SCM as:

“The supply chain is the network of organizations that are involved, through upstream and downstream linkages, in the different processes and activities that produce value in the form of products and services in the hands of the ultimate consumer” [CHR 92].

Several other definitions followed, the most referenced of which are the following:

“There is a need for some level of coordination of activities and processes within and between organizations in the supply chain that extends beyond logistics” [LAM 98].

and

“The systemic, strategic coordination of the traditional business functions and the tactics across these business functions within a particular company and across businesses within the supply chain, for the purposes of improving the long-term performance of the individual companies and the supply chain as a whole” [MEN 01].

I.1.3. Definitions related to Sustainable Supply Chain Management

Currently, the focus is on Sustainable Supply Chain Management. All of the research reveals a wide range of application areas for implementing sustainable logistics. Works can be found on waste management, green logistics, reverse logistics, eco-design and the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through rationalization and massing of transport routes, particularly on the logistics of the last mile [COL 03, BER 08, BAZ 08, BLA 08, DUR 10, GON 10, MAS 10, PAN 10, SAV 10, BLA 10]. However, sustainable logistics considerations are gradually converging towards the inclusion of the three economic/environmental/social–societal pillars, throughout the logistics chain [MOR 13].

In terms of the definitions of Sustainable Supply Chain Management (SSCM), we can quote:

“SSCM requires a broadened approach to SCM. It should emphasize economic, ecological and social aspects of business practices and theory.” [SVE 07];

“Sustainable Supply Chain Management (SSCM) is the strategic, transparent integration and achievement of an organization’s social, environmental and economic goals in the systemic coordination of key inter-organizational business processes for improving the long-term economic performance of the individual company and its supply chains.” [CAR 08];

“We define Sustainable Supply Chain Management as the management of material, information and capital flows as well as cooperation among companies along the supply chain while taking goals from all three dimensions of sustainable development, that is, economic, environmental and social, into account which are derived from customer and stakeholder requirements.” [SEU 08];

“A sustainable supply chain is then one that performs well on both traditional measures of profit and loss as well as on an expanded conceptualization of performance that includes social and natural dimensions”; “If a sustainable chain is one that performs well on all elements of the triple bottom line, Sustainable Supply Chain Management is then the specific managerial actions that are taken to make the supply chain more sustainable with an end goal of creating a truly sustainable chain.” [PAG 09];

“Sustainable Supply Chain Management is valued as the management flows of material, information, financial, people and intelligence for economic, environmental and social/societal purposes. From a strategic management approach, it is driven by the voluntary interplay of intra- and inter-organizational connections and the long-term performance of each company and its supply chain.” [MOR 13].

I.2. Sheet 2: Supply Chain Flows

I.2.1. Fundamental flows in the supply chain

As it evolved, logistics saw an increase in the number of flows associated with its practice. Basically, logistics refers to two main flows [HES 73, TIX 79, COL 88, FAB 97, ARN 98, PAC 99]:

– a product flow (a term sometimes replaced by material flow, goods flow, physical flow and/or service flow);
– and a flow of information.

These first two flows maintain links upstream and downstream of the supply chain.

Aurifeille et al. [AUR 97] integrated the cash flow into these two basic flows, with the aim of short- and medium-term profitability. This flow goes from downstream to upstream, and also in the opposite direction.

The supply chain is thus generally represented by these three flows:

– originally, a flow of products from upstream (the supplier) to downstream (the final customer). Notwithstanding, the flow of products can also have an inverse direction, that is, from downstream to upstream for varying (1) commercial reasons (technical problems and trade repossessions), (2) legal reasons (recycling) and (3) economic reasons (re-use and recovery) ([LAM 04], see Sheet 35, section 6.3.4).
– the flow of information from downstream to upstream, because it reflects the description of the command;
– the cash flow also from downstream to upstream, which corresponds to the amount of the purchased good, except in the case of reimbursement.

However, it should not be forgotten that the fulfillment of an order requires a fourth type of flow, namely the people flow [HES 73, TIX 83], without which the existence of the first three flows could not exist!

Finally, a final type of flow is suggested, in order to express the functioning of a supply chain, namely the intelligence flow [MES 99]. Through the basic logistics triptych “cost – quality – time”², these two authors argued over an intelligence flow, with the aim of maximizing the exploitation of all information, in order to optimize 1) responsiveness, in the sense of identifying and then satisfying unforeseen demands; (2) agility, in other words, the ability to rapidly reconfigure an offer system by redeploying available resources and (3) efficiency, in the ability to systematically eliminate all forms of waste.

I.2.2. “Internal” flow policies in the supply chain

In logistics, reference is also made to three types of internal flows that can be found in production management. These flows are applied according to the company’s policy and also according to the competitive level of the activity sector in which the company is located. For example, a company that is part of a “niche” strategy, where expensive products are generally found with a selective clientele, can more easily apply a pull-flow or tight-flow policy.

The three “internal” flow policies in production that can be used are:

– push system. This type of production is practiced for standard goods in bulk. The client’s order is not expected. Based on sales forecasts, the company determines a production stock and sends it to distributors for a supposed sale. Thus, in this particular context, information flows go in the same direction as product flows. The constraints of this type of production turn out to be the presence of large stock with a risk of losses, in the event of obsolescence and/or non-sale of products. In addition, the presence of stock also means costs in terms of holding stock and warehouse management;
– pull system. The production process is triggered only when the order is fixed and definitive, so at the customer’s clearly identified request. The production order starts from the purchase order. We are looking here at a personalization of the production. However, intermediate stock may exist in a pull flow production;
– tight-flow policy. This is often assimilated to a pull-flow policy, since it is also based on fixed and definitive control. It is part of the “5 zeros” method, which presupposes a management without defects, paper, breakdowns, stock or delay. It is similar to the just-in-time³ or lean manufacturing method⁴. In current practice, a tight-flow policy aims at production without stock throughout the cycle.

For companies confronted with competition, it is almost impossible for them to have a policy based solely on pull and/or tight flows. Companies must therefore respond to the dilemma of a search for economic profitability, by minimizing inventory costs while proposing a customization of their order, in order to increase customer loyalty, and all this while within the delivery time. This often takes the form of a combined push-flow–pull-flow policy. Upstream, we standardize products as much as possible with the setting up of stock, and when the order arrives, we customize the product. This approach is apprehended under the concept of “delayed differentiation at the production level [… which] delays changes in the form and identity of products and production processes” [GAR 08, p. 32].

**Figure I.1.** *The combination of push- and pull-flow production*

I.3. Sheet 3: The Main Models of the Global Supply Chain

I.3.1. The Supply Chain Management structure according to Christopher (1992 onward)

Martin Christopher [CHR 92, CHR 94, CHR 97, CHR 99, CHR 00] was one of the first authors to highlight the importance of Supply Chain Management in logistics practices. From these early writings, we will retain the aspects presented in Figure I.2.

For Christopher [CHR 00], the notion of partnership is important for the practice of SCM. In order for a partnership to be set up, there must be a combination of agility, reliability, responsiveness and proactivity. For this author, agility implies “the ability to move quickly and to meet customer demand sooner”. Reliability in logistics depends on the ability to deliver to the right place, at the right time, on the right date and to the right customer. The difference between responsiveness and proactivity is that the former identifies and responds quickly to changes in its environment, while the latter responds quickly when proactivity influences changes in that environment.

**Figure I.2.** **The SCM structure**

*(source: adapted from [CHR 92, CHR 94, CHR 97, CHR 99, CHR 00])*

In addition, for SCM to succeed, internal actions are needed. As such, four elements must be interlinked: good process management, performance measurement, value creation for ultimate customers (that is, downstream logistics) and integration with suppliers (that is, upstream logistics).

I.3.2. The World Class Logistics model [GLR 95, BOW 99]

The WCL model (World Class Logistics) [GLR 95, BOW 99] advocates four areas of competence. These four areas of skill are themselves divided into several success criteria. These areas of competence are:

– strategic positioning with four criteria, namely logistics strategy (financial and commercial objectives), the supply chain (synchronization of resources), infrastructure/networks and organization of people;
– integration, which considers seven criteria: (1) unification of the supply chain, (2) information systems, (3) information sharing, (4) compatibility to be exchanged, (5) standardization of policies and procedures, (6) simplification of procedures and (7) people’s support;
– agility through the criteria of vigilance, adaptability and flexibility;
– performance measurement with three criteria: the choice of indicators, evaluation of the supply chain process and benchmarking techniques.

I.3.3. The SCOR® Supply Chain Operations Reference Model (1996)

Introduced in 1996, the SCOR model is the product of the Supply Chain Council, a group of consulting companies of Pittiglio, Rabin, Todd and McGarrah, and AMR⁵, as well as 69 initial companies from various economic sectors (more than 400 companies currently registered). The SCOR model is structured into four levels:

– level 1 (Top Level) defines the perimeter of the model. The five key management processes, namely planning, procurement, fulfillment, delivery and return management are presented here (see Sheet 41, section 7.6.3 for a presentation of generic metrics);
– level 2 (Configuration Level) specifies the strategic processes that companies want to implement within their supply chain;
– level 3 (Process Element Level) breaks down each initiated process (input and output elements, metrics, best practices);
– level 4 (Implementation Level) is at the initiative of each company. It specifies level 3 according to the desired interests in a more or less long-term perspective.

I.3.4. The model of the Global Supply Chain Forum Structure of [LAM 98]

The structure of Supply Chain Management according to Lambert et al. [LAM 98] is broken down into several elements:

– the first element identifies the members of the supply chain, considering those who are in the primary order of the productive process and secondary order in the supply of goods and services;
– the second element evaluates the aspects of the network of organizations, in other words, the number of operators on the horizontal chain, the number of operators on the vertical level at each horizontal “node” and the positioning of the company on the processed logistics chain;
– the third element considers the level of integration of the company in its supply chain (power of influence);
– a fourth element identifies and analyzes eight business processes in the supply chain: (1) customer relationship management, (2) customer service management, (3) demand management, (4) fulfillment of orders, (5) workflow management, (6) supplier relationship management, (7) product development and marketing, and (8) return management. These eight processes are “linked” to each other in terms of the functions present in the company (marketing, sales, research and development, logistics, production, purchasing and finance) as well as to other operators in the supply chain (suppliers and customers);
– a fifth element lists the physical and technical management components (planning and control methods, work rhythms and activity structure, organization structure, communication and information flow of the technical structure, product flow of the technical structure) as well as managerial and behavioral components (management methods, power and leadership structure, risk and reward structure, culture and attitude).

I.3.5. The model by Mentzer et al. [MEN 01]

Mentzer et al. [MEN 0l] suggested two projects to structure Supply Chain Management:

– Supply Chain Orientation (SCO), which encompasses six principles, namely (1) credibility (reliability, recognition of the company), (2) benevolence (“health” of the company, answers to questions, risk sharing and rewards), (3) commitment (cooperation, technical assistance), (4) support for Top Management (dissemination of objectives, long-term contracts, training), (5) compatibility (strategy, general knowledge, etc.) and (6) standards (cooperation, value creation).
– Supply Chain Management (SCM), which also involves six principles: (1) common vision and goals (standardization of practices, definition of roles), (2) information sharing (Electronic Data Exchange, forecasting and planning exchange), (3) risk sharing and rewards (financial, research and development), (4) cooperation and integration of processes (reporting, indicators, quality, communication, stock management, etc.), (5) long-term relationships (reducing complexity, audits) and (6) supply chain leadership (audit, benchmarking).

In 2004, Min and Mentzer completed these two projects with a third, which developed a “performance” axis with five principles to consider: availability (inventory), the offer of products and services, timeliness (just-in-time delivery), profitability and growth (turnover and market share).

I.4. Sheet 4: The Main Logistics Associations

I.4.1. The main national and international associations of logistics professionals

I.4.1.1. AFILOG

AFILOG is a French professional association created in 2001. Its objective is to “answer the questions of its members on the problems of a sector that is both rapidly developing and changing, composed of a mosaic of professions whose universe is often complex to understand”. Seven working themes are to its credit: the sustainable development commission, which deals with the Norme Française Bâtiments Tertiaires – HEQ® process (High Environmental Quality), the AFILOG charter, the evaluation of the energy performance of existing buildings, green rating™ and technical innovations; the urban logistics commission; the communication commission; the taxation commission; the risk prevention and regulation commission; the training commission and the prospective commission.

http://www.afilog.org/

I.4.1.2. L’Association française de la Supply chain et de la Logistique (ASLOG) (The French Supply Chain and LOGistics Association)

Founded in 1972, ASLOG has had several names including the “Association des logisticiens d’entreprise” (Association of Company Logistics Specialists), the “Association pour la logistique dans l’entreprise” (Association for Company Logistics) and the “Association française pour la logistique” (French Association for Logistics). Now known as the French Supply Chain and Logistics Association, ASLOG “aims to promote supply chain and logistics professions on a national and international level. Multi-sectoral and representing more than 600 companies, it is the only association covering all activities in the global supply chain”. Currently, 11 thematic commissions are on the agenda within this association: benchmarking, the reading committee, skills/jobs and salaries, the e-supply chain, real estate and trends, health logistics, social and solidarity logistics, urban logistics, risk management, regulations in real estate and agile supply chain. ASLOG is also affiliated to the European Logistics Association (ELA).

https://www.aslog.fr/

I.4.1.3. Le Bureau de Promotion du Shortsea Shipping (BP2S) (Shortsea Shipping Promotion Office)

The BP2S is an association under the law of 1901, which was created in 2000. Its role is to promote shortsea shipping and intermodality. It is part of the ESN (European Shortsea Network), which aims to promote the shortsea shipping market.

http://www.shortsea.fr/

I.4.1.4. The Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (CSCMP)

Established in 1963 in the USA, the National Council of Physical Distribution Management (NCPDM) became known as the Council of Logistics Management (CLM) in 1985, and then as the Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (CSCMP) in 2004. It is an international association with more than 8,500 members from industry, government and research sectors in 67 countries. It offers CSCMP’s SCPro™ certification for the recognition of industrial supply chain expertise.

https://cscmp.org/

I.4.1.5. The European Logistics Association (ELA)

ELA is a European logistics association that provides an open link and forum for all logistics companies. Thusly, it proposes logistic standards to be used internationally. It is a federation of 30 associations covering Western and Central European countries (Austria: BVL Austria, Belgium: VIB and ABCAL, Croatia: HRLA, Cyprus: CLA, Czech Republic: CLA, Finland: Logy, France: ASLOG, Germany: BVL and BME, Greece: HILME, Hungary: HALPIM, Republic of Ireland: CILT, Italy: AILOG, Lithuania: LLA, Morocco: AMDL, the Netherlands: VLM, Norway: NIMA, Poland: PSML and PTL, Portugal: APLOG, Romania: ARILOG, Russia: NLA, Slovenia: SLA, Spain: CEL, Sweden: SILF, Switzerland: GS1 Switzerland, Ukraine: ULA, and the United Kingdom: CILT; http://www.elalog.eu/members).

http://www.elalog.eu/

I.4.1.6. Global Standards 1 (GS1)

Formerly Gencod, GS1 is a world organization created in 1973 under Belgian law. Its business is to create common standards for the identification of products, such as barcodes.

http://www.institutionnel.gs1.fr/Accueil

I.4.1.7. Le Group of Terrestrial Freight forwarders (GTF)

The GTF, created in 1987, is a French association created under the law of 1901. It brings together transport companies of Grouping-Messaging. It has developed messages of information exchange under the INOVERT® brand (International Overland Transport) and has also defined recommendations on the use of barcodes in the field of traceability. The GTF is a partner of GS1 (formerly Gencod), which is an organization founded under Belgian law, created in 1973.

http://www.institutionnel.gs1.fr/Partenaires-institutionnels/GTF

I.4.2. The main clusters of French competitiveness in logistics

I.4.2.1. Nov@log

Created in 2005, the Nov@log cluster of competitiveness aims to develop the services and logistics systems of the future. Members are divided into three associations: business, research and teaching, and government agencies. The cluster’s topics of commitment are traceability, intermodality, the industrial logistics process and flows, the maritime and land interface, urban and logistical movements, the environment and security.

http://novalog.eu/

I.4.2.2. LUTB Transport & Mobility Systems

I.4.3. The main French associations of teacher–researchers in logistics

I.4.3.1. L’Association Française des Instituts de Transport et de Logistique (AFITL) (The French Association of Transport and Logistics Institutes)

AFITL is an association created in 1989, whose statutes were amended in 1998 in order to add logistics to its name. According to Article 1 of the statutes, the purpose of AFITL is to:

– “publicize and ensure the promotion and development of research and higher education in transport,
– study common issues in these two areas,
– enable the representation of its members at the national and international level to the organizations concerned, by teaching and research activities in the fields of transport and logistics”.

Since 1994, AFITL has published the scientific journal Cahiers Scientifiques du Transport. Since 1995, it has also organized the Eric Tabourin doctoral days and awarded a prize for the best professional dissertations from Bac+4 to Bac+6.

http://afitl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/index.php/accueil.html

I.4.3.2. L’Association Internationale de Recherche en Logistique (AIRL) (The International Logistics Research Association)

AIRL was created in 2002. Its objective is “to increase the visibility and dissemination of French-speaking research conducted in these fields [logistics management and Supply Chain Management]”. Every two years, it organizes the Rencontres Internationales de Recherche en Logistique (International Research Meetings in Logistics). It is supported by the scientific journals Logistique et Management and Supply Chain Forum: an International Journal.

http://www.airl-scm.com/

I.4.4. France’s leading transport and logistics research laboratories

I.4.4.1. Le Centre de Recherche sur le Transport et la Logistique (CRET-LOG) (Transport and Logistics Research Centre)

Created in 1973 as CRET (Centre de Recherche d’Economie des Transports), this became CRET-LOG in 1992. It focuses mainly on three areas of research: (1) logistics and Supply Chain Management, (2) distribution channel management and (3) management of cross-organizational strategies.

https://cret-log.univ-amu.fr/

I.4.4.2. The Laboratoire Aménagement et Economie des Transports (LAET)

Created in 1979, the LET (Laboratoire d’Economie des Transports) is a research laboratory which specializes in transport economics and land development. The LET is attached to the CNRS, the University of Lyon 2 and the Ecole Nationale des Travaux Publics de l’Etat (Ecole d’ingénieurs ENTPE). The LET’s work is in the fields of relations between transport (people and goods), territories and society. On December 10, 2015, the LET changed its name to LAET, short for Laboratoire Aménagement Economie Transports.

http://www.laet.science/

I.4.4.3. The Institut Français des Sciences et Technologies des Transports, de l’Aménagement et des Réseaux (IFSTTAR)

Created in 2011 from the merging of INRETS (Institut National de Recherche sur les Transports et leur Sécurité) and LCPC (Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées), IFSTTAR is a public scientific institution under the supervision of the French Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy and the French Ministry of Higher Education and Research. “IFSTTAR conducts finalized research and expertise in the fields of transport, infrastructure, natural hazards and the city, in order to improve the living conditions of our citizens and, more generally, to promote the sustainable development of our societies”. The SPLOTT laboratory (Systèmes Productifs, Logistique, Organisation des Transports, et Travail), founded in 2005, is attached to IFSTTAR.

http://www.ifsttar.fr/

1 All purchases made within the European Union are fixed and final, which means that you cannot withdraw unless you pay a cancellation fee. Nevertheless, law no. 2014-1545 of March 17, 2014, known as the Hamon law, in Article L. 121-21, paragraph 1, of the French Commercial Code specifies that “The consumer has a period of fourteen days to exercise his right to withdraw from a contract concluded at a distance, following a telephone or off-premises solicitation, without having to justify his decision or bear any costs other than those provided for in Articles L. 121-21-3 to L. 121-21-5. Any clause by which the consumer gives up his right of withdrawal shall be null and void”. But beware; some companies circumvent this article by having the consumer validate a purchase of goods and services in a computational manner that cancels this law when this is specified in the General Terms and Conditions of Sale.