Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Dedication

Preface

Part 1: Alginates—Introduction, Characterization and Properties

Chapter 1: Alginates: General Introduction and Properties
1. 1.1 Introduction
2. 1.2 History
3. 1.3 Structure
4. 1.4 Alginates and Their Properties
5. 1.5 Sources
6. 1.6 Biosynthesis of Bacterial Alginate
7. 1.7 Conclusion
8. Acknowledgment
9. Conflict of Interests
10. References
Chapter 2: Alginates Production, Characterization and Modification
1. 2.1 Introduction
2. 2.2 Alginate: Production
3. 2.3 Characterization of Physicochemical Properties of Alginate
4. 2.4 Modification of Alginates
5. 2.5 Future Perspectives
6. 2.6 Conclusions
7. References
Chapter 3: Alginate: Recent Progress and Technological Prospects
1. 3.1 Introduction
2. 3.2 Structure
3. 3.3 Sources
4. 3.4 Characteristics of Alginate Salts
5. 3.5 Properties
6. 3.6 Applications
7. 3.7 Future Perspectives
8. 3.8 Advantages
9. 3.9 Disadvantages
10. 3.10 Conclusion
11. Acknowledgments
12. References
Chapter 4: Alginate Hydrogel and Aerogel
1. 4.1 Introduction
2. 4.2 Alginate Hydrogel
3. 4.3 Alginate Aerogel
4. 4.4 Future Perspectives
5. References

Part 2: Alginates in Biomedical Applications

Chapter 5: Alginate in Biomedical Applications
1. 5.1 Introduction
2. 5.2 Chemical Structure and Properties of Alginate
3. 5.3 Types of Interaction of Alginate
4. 5.4 Biomedical Application of Alginates
5. 5.5 Future Perspective of the Use and Biomedical Applications
6. References
Chapter 6: Alginates in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Application: A Critique
1. 6.1 Introduction
2. 6.2 Structure of Alginate
3. 6.3 Different Types of Alginates Used in Pharmaceutical Industries
4. 6.4 Properties of Alginate
5. 6.5 Pathway for the Biosynthesis of Alginate
6. 6.6 Regulatory Consideration of Alginate
7. 6.7 Applications
8. 6.8 Conclusion
9. References
Chapter 7: Alginates in Evolution of Restorative Dentistry
1. 7.1 Introduction
2. 7.2 Method of Alginate Extraction
3. 7.3 Evolution of Alginate in Restorative Dentistry
4. 7.4 The Art of Impression Taking Using Alginates
5. 7.5 Conclusions
6. References
Chapter 8: Alginates in Drug Delivery
1. 8.1 Introduction
2. 8.2 Chemistry of Alginates
3. 8.3 Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Chemistry of Alginates
4. 8.4 Conclusions
5. Acknowledgments
6. References
Chapter 9: Alginate in Wound Care
1. 9.1 Introduction
2. 9.2 Sources and Synthesis of Alginate
3. 9.3 Physicochemical Properties of the Alginate Biopolymer
4. 9.4 Biomedical Applications of Alginate
5. 9.5 Opportunities and Future Thrust
6. References
Chapter 10: Alginate-Based Biomaterials for Bio-Medical Applications
1. 10.1 Introduction
2. 10.2 Alginate: General Properties
3. 10.3 Extraction and Preparation
4. 10.4 Alginate Hydrogels
5. 10.5 Photocross-Linking
6. 10.6 Shape-Memory Alginate Scaffolds
7. 10.7 Biodegradation of Alginate
8. 10.8 Biomedical Application of Alginates
9. References

Part 3: Alginates in Food Industry

Chapter 11: Alginates for Food Packaging Applications
1. 11.1 Introduction
2. 11.2 Biopolymer in Food Industry
3. 11.3 Alginates in Food Packaging
4. 11.4 Biosynthesis of Alginate
5. 11.5 Application of Alginate in Formation of Biofilm
6. 11.6 Packaging Properties of Alginate
7. 11.7 Effect of Alginate on the Quality of Food
8. 11.8 Interaction between Food and Alginates
9. 11.9 Environmental Effects on Alginate Packaging
10. 11.10 Market Outlook
11. 11.11 Conclusion
12. References
Chapter 12: Potential Application of Alginates in the Beverage Industry
1. 12.1 Introduction
2. 12.2 Alginate Source
3. 12.3 Extraction of Alginates
4. 12.4 Physical, Chemical and Functional Properties of Alginate
5. 12.5 Uses as a Food Additive/Ingredient
6. 12.6 Alginate as Stabilizer
7. 12.7 As Encapsulating Wall Material
8. 12.8 Conclusion
9. References
Chapter 13: Alginates in Comestibles
1. 13.1 Introduction
2. 13.2 Alginates in Agricultural Marketing
3. 13.3 Use of Alginates in Food Industry
4. 13.4 Use of Alginates for Pets
5. 13.5 Effect of Dietary Alginates
6. 13.6 Alginate Safety
7. 13.7 Conclusion
8. References

Part 4: Alginates Future Prospects

Chapter 14: Alginates: Current Uses and Future Perspective
1. 14.1 Introduction
2. 14.2 Sources of Alginate Synthesis
3. 14.3 Synthesis of Alginate
4. 14.4 Properties of Alginates
5. 14.5 Application of Alginates
6. 14.6 Future Perspectives of Alginates
7. 14.7 Conclusion
8. References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Structure of ALG monomers (L-guluronic acid and D-mannuronic acid).
Figure 1.2 (a) Homopolymeric blocks of poly-β-1,4-D-mannuronic acid (MM blocks);...
Figure 1.3 Egg-box structure formation during the ionic gelation of sodium ALG [17]....
Figure 1.4 Gelation process of ALG [25]....
Figure 1.5 Structure of the ALG biosynthetic complex [33]....

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Oxidation of sodium alginate....
Figure 2.2 Copolymerization of sodium acrylate with sodium alginate....
Figure 2.3 Esterification of alginate....
Figure 2.4 Alginate cross-linking using epichlorohydrin....
Figure 2.5 Alginate cross-linking using glutaraldehyde....

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Alginate monomers in block distribution....
Figure 3.2 Procedure of alginate....

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Structure of alginate showing all four glycosidic linkages, i.e., linkage in MM,...
Figure 6.2 Sodium alginate extraction from brown algae....
Figure 6.3 Flow chart for the production of sodium alginate....

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Chemical structure of alginate (adopted from Skaugrud, Hagen [11])....
Figure 7.2 Cross-linking of alginate G blocks with calcium....
Figure 7.3 Method of sodium alginate extraction from brown seaweed (adapted from Sachan,...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 (a) Different forms of linear polymers of alginate [1]. (b) L-guluronic acid (G)...
Figure 8.2 Different mechanisms of drug release (reproduced with permission [9])....

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Bacterial alginate biosynthesis pathway [11]....
Figure 9.2 Structural characteristics of alginates: (a) alginate monomers, (b) chain...
Figure 9.3 Possible junction points in alginates. (a) GG/GG junctions, (b) MG/MG junctions,....
Figure 9.4 Cross-sectional images of regeneration of rat deep wound model stained by...
Figure 9.5 Swelling capacity of PEGDA/AA/alginate hydrogels with different monomer...
Figure 9.6 Photographic findings of wounds covered with ACF-HS or Kaltostat, and controls....
Figure 9.7 Histology of wound sections stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Epithelialization...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 The (1-4)-linkage of alternate M and G residues of alginate [11]....
Figure 10.2 The intermolecular cross-linkage of G residues of alginate with Ca2+ ions [12]....
Figure 10.3 Preparation and extraction of alginate from natural resources....
Figure 10.4 Images of optical microscopic C₂C₁₂ myoblasts linked to the...
Figure 10.5 Images of confocal microscopic main human fibroblasts cultivated on alginate gels...

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Schematic overview of different biopolymers [15]....
Figure 11.2 Conformations of M- and G-blocks [20]....
Figure 11.3 Block structures of alginates. Poly-β-D-mannuronate (above) and...
Figure 11.4 Scanning electron micrograph of alginate cast film [17]....
Figure 11.5 Schematic cross-linking of alginate in the presence of calcium counterions...
Figure 11.6 Effect of antimicrobial plastic film on Aspergillus niger. Agar...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Schematic representation of commercial extraction of alginates....
Figure 12.2 Production of propylene glycol alginate: Reaction between alginic acid and propylene...
Figure 12.3 Structural characteristics of alginates: (a) monomers, (b) chain conformation,...
Figure 12.4 Egg box complex of Ca²⁺ ion and alginate (modified from [25])....
Figure 12.5 External ionic gelation through extrusion (Source: modified from [9])....
Figure 12.6 Internal setting method (Source: modified from [9])....
Figure 12.7 Microencapsulation of probiotic culture by external and internal ionic gelation...

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Structure of mannuronate, guluronate, and β (1→4) mannuronic acid...
Figure 14.2 Gene order of alginate synthesis genes—(a) biosynthesis genes, (b)...

List of Tables

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Characteristics of sodium alginate recommended by the United States Pharmacopeia...
Table 6.2 List of pharmaceutical products based on ALG....

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Studies on the effect of extended pour time on dimensional stability of the...

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Alginate-based wound dressings commercially available in the market [21]....
Table 9.2 Different hydrophilic polymers for preparation of hydrogel [58]....

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Application of alginate in food packaging....

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Grades of alginates extracted from various seaweeds in their country of harvest...
Table 12.2 Solubility of alginates in various pH solutions [18]....
Table 12.3 Various applications of alginates and its purpose of use (Source: modified from...
Table 12.4 Permissible limit for alginates in different food products (Source: modified...
Table 12.5 Multilayer encapsulation of various probiotic microbes with multilayer wall...

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Approval of alginates by various food committees....

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Algae used for the extraction of alginates....

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-119-48791-3

This book
is
dedicated to:

The woman who raised me—Amma
The woman who guided me—Prof Saiqa Ikram
The women who loved me—Nasreen Akhter, Parveen Akhter, Shamim
Akhter, and Naida Bhabhi
The men who supported me during ups and downs of my life—
Mohd Shabbir, Abdul Hamid, Mohd Aslam, and Naseeb Bajraan
The friends who stood with me—Wahid ul Rehman, Faheem Rasool,
Aamir Mushtaq, and Maqbool Bajjar

Preface

Alginates are linear biopolymers consisting of 1,4-linked β-D-mannuronic acid and 1,4 α-L-guluronic acid residues. These groups of naturally occurring polysaccharides, which are derived from brown algal cell walls and several bacterial strains, have found numerous applications in biomedical sciences and pharmaceutical and food industries. Although there are currently many books available with chapters referencing alginates, this is the first of its kind solely devoted to their properties, modification, and characterization, with particular emphasis on their applications in the biomedical and food industries.

The wide-ranging topics discussed in this book are as follows. Chapter 1 gives an overview of alginates, their structures, and properties, and a detailed account of the modification of alginates, various characterization techniques, and methods of processing is given in chapter 2. Chapter 3 covers the dynamic properties of alginates and their innovative application in various materials, namely, the nanomaterial or the polymer. Chapters 4 and 5 discuss the biomedical applications of alginates. The focus of chapter 6 is the wide use of alginates in pharmaceutical and biomedical industries and that of chapter 7 is the evolution of alginate materials in restorative dentistry. Chapter 8 discusses applications of different cross-linked alginate networks, their microspheres, and hydrogel in relation to drug encapsulation and delivery processes and includes a brief introduction of the chemistry and pharmaceutical chemistry of alginates.

In chapter 9, biomedical applications of alginates—particularly wound care application in the various forms of alginate-based wound dressings—are discussed. Chapter 10 discusses the present use and future potential of alginates as a tool in drug formulation and regenerative medicine. Chapters 11, 12, and 13 focus on food packaging, beverage industry, and comestible applications of alginates, respectively. The last chapter of the book discusses the current uses and future prospects of alginates in food packaging and biomedical applications.

I hope that this book will be helpful to research scholars and scientists working in the area of alginates. I hope that it will also be helpful to beginners and undergraduate and graduate students, as it gives a full description of alginate structural details, history, properties, processing, etc. I am very grateful to the contributors of this book for their valuable contributions and Scrivener-Wiley for its publication.

Shakeel Ahmed
December 2018
Jammu & Kashmir, India

Alginates

Applications in the Biomedical and Food Industries

Preface

Part 1
ALGINATES—INTRODUCTION, CHARACTERIZATION AND PROPERTIES