Contents

Cover

Foreword

Acknowledgements

Preface

About the Editors

Chapter 1: Challenges and Opportunities for the Production of Industrial Enzymes by Fermentation

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Production of Microbial Enzymes by Fermentation: A Process Perspective
1.3 Building Up Enzyme Catalysts for Process Applications
1.4 Conclusions
References

Chapter 2: Biotechnology of Leather: An Alternative to Conventional Leather Processing

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Structure and Significance of Leather Industry
2.3 History of Leather
2.4 Conventional Methods for Leather Processing
2.5 Biotechnology in Leather Industry
2.6 A Good Alternative to Conventional Chemicals in Leather Processing
2.7 Enzymes for Leather Processing
2.8 Importers and Exporters of Top Leather
2.9 Outlook
References

Chapter 3: Enzyme Catalysis: A Workforce to Productivity of Textile Industry

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Major Textile Enzymes, Mechanism of Action and Microbial Sources
3.3 Applications in Textile Industry
3.4 Technological Advancements to Enhanced Production of Textile Enzymes
3.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References

Chapter 4: Current Trends in the Production of Ligninolytic Enzymes

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Ligninolytic Enzymes
4.3 Sources of Ligninolytic Enzymes
4.4 Production of Ligninolytic Enzymes
4.5 Purification of Ligninolytic Enzymes
4.6 Potential Applications of Ligninoytic Enzymes
4.7 Outlook
References

Chapter 5: Asava-Arishta: A Multi-Advantageous Fermented Product in Ayurveda

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Definition of Asava and Arishta
5.3 Method of Preparation for Asava Arishta
5.4 Role of Ingredients and Process
5.5 Advantages of Asava–Arishta Over Other Dosage Form
5.6 Future Perspective
Acknowledgements
References

Chapter 6: Production and Applications of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Biosynthesis of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
6.3 Sources of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
6.4 Different Fermentation Process for PUFA Production
6.5 Application of PUFAs
6.6 Future Perspectives
6.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References

Chapter 7: Functional Foods and Their Health Benefits

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Fermented Functional Foods
7.3 Functional Whole Foods
7.4 Conclusion
References

Chapter 8: Industrially Important Biomolecules From Cyanobacteria

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Cultivation Methods for Cyanobacteria
8.3 Multifaceted Role of Biocompounds Found in Cyanobacteria
8.4 Industrial-Scale Production and Commercial Status
8.5 Future Perspectives
Acknowledgements
References

Chapter 9: Augmenting Bioactivity of Plant-Based Foods Using Fermentation

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Effect of Fermentation on Bioactivity of Plant-Based Foods
9.3 Different Fermentation Procedures
9.4 Factors Affecting Fermentation Process
9.5 Bioactive Properties of Fermented Foods
9.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References

Chapter 10: Probiotic Intervention for Human Health and Disease

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Various Sources of Probiotics
10.3 Commercially Developed Probiotic Products
10.4 Global Market of Probiotics
10.5 Probiotic Production From Fermentation Process
10.6 Health Implications of Gut Microbiota Dynamics
10.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgement
References

Chapter 11: Saccharomyces - Eukaryotic Probiotic for Human Applications

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Advantages of Eukaryotic Probiotics Over Prokaryotic Probiotics
11.3 Probiotic Properties of Approved Yeast Strains
11.4 Pharmacodynamics of S. Boulardii
11.5 Therapeutic Potentials of S.boulardii
11.6 Fermentative Production of S. Boulardii
11.7 Commercial Impact of Probiotic Products (Eukaryotic Probiotics)
11.8 Safety
11.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References

Chapter 12: Bioactive Polysaccharides Produced by Microorganisms: Production and Applications

12.1 Introduction
12.2 Classification and Structure of Polysaccharides
12.3 Fungal Polysaccharides
12.4 Bacterial Polysaccharides
12.5 Algal Polysaccharides
12.6 Microbial Polysaccharides versus Plant Polysaccharides
12.7 Biological Activities of Microbial Polysaccharides
12.8 Microbial Polysaccharides Production
12.9 Microbial Polysaccharides Recovery
12.10 Conclusion
References

Chapter 13: Shikimic Acid: A Compound of Industrial Interest with Respect to Swine/Avian Flu

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Shikimic Acid
13.3 Applications of Shikimic Acid
13.4 Conclusion
References

Chapter 14: 1,3-Propanediol: From Waste to Wardrobe

14.1 Introduction
14.2 Applications of 1,3-PDO
14.3 Microbial Production of 1,3-PDO
14.4 Challenges in Microbial Production of 1,3-PDO
14.5 Different Strategies for the Production of 1,3-PDO
14.6. Downstream Processing of 1,3-PDO
14.7 Economic Importance of 1,3-PDO
14.8 Future Prospects and Outlook
14.9 Conclusions
References

Chapter 15: Biomedical and Nutraceutical Applications of Chitin and Chitosan

15.1 Introduction
15.2 Different Forms of Chitin and CHS
15.3 Biosynthesis of Chitin and CHS
15.4 Biomedical Applications of Chitin and CHS
15.5 Nutraceutical Application of Chitin and CHS
15.6 Commercial Products
15.7 Conclusion
References

Chapter 16: Microbial Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Current Status and Future Prospects

16.1 Introduction
16.2 PHA Structure and Diversity
16.3 Physical Properties of PHA
16.4 Environment, Phylogeny and Diversity of PHA Producing Microorganisms
16.5 PHA Biosynthesis
16.6 Problems and Challenges in PHA Production on an Industrial Scale
16.7 Applications of PHAs in the Medical Industry
16.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects
Acknowledgements
References

List of Contributors

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Value Chain of Leather Industry [12].
Figure 2.2 Making of leather goods (adapted from Acron - The Olde Hide House...
Figure 2.3 Inflowand out flow diagram for leather processing [1].
Figure 2.4 Inflow and out flowdiagram for leather processing [1].
Figure 2.5 Comparative analysisin appearance of dehaired skin after chemical and enzymatic...
Figure 2.6 An overview of the leather production process, emphasizing steps that are at...
Figure 2.7 Dehaired skins and hides using proteolytic enzymes.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Role of enzymes in different fields of life.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Representative linkages present in lignin and basic structural units found in...
Figure 4.2 The catalytic cycle of lignin peroxidase (LiP); VA^·+: veratryl...
Figure 4.3 The catalytic cycle of manganese-dependent peroxidase (MnP). Reprinted from...
Figure 4.4 The catalytic cycle of versatile peroxidase (VP). Reprinted from Journal of...
Figure 4.5 The catalytic cycle of laccase. Reprinted from Applied Biochemistry and...
Figure 4.6 Laccase mediator system (LMS) [49].

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Steps of fermentation - traditional vs industrial process.
Figure 5.2 Fermentation by yeast.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Biosynthetic pathways of LC-PUFA from C18 PUFA precursors in vertebrates (Reactions...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Kimchi (Source: https://i.ytimg.com/vi/0sX_wDCbeuU/maxresdefault.jpg).
Figure 7.2 Sourdough (a) Liquid (Source: https://breadtopia.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/starter.jpg)...
Figure 7.3 Nutmeg (Myristica fragans) (Source: https://media1.britannica.com/eb-media/...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Multifaceted role of biocompounds found in cyanobacteria (BGA).

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Effect of fermentation on bioactivity of plant based functional foods.
Figure 9.2 Schematic diagram of production process of fermented plant extracts [Partially...
Figure 9.3 Bioactive properties of fermented plant extracts.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Commonly used probiotic microorganisms.
Figure 10.2 Various health benefits of probiotics.
Figure 10.3 Various mechanisms used by probiotics for lowering cholesterol.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Human intestinal system (Adapted from a graphic of David Carlson:...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Polysaccharides from algae. Source [45].

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Pandemism of swine/avian flu over the globe (red zone showing the affected regions).
Figure 13.2 Antigenic re-assortment in the influenza virus.
Figure 13.3 A historical account of swine and avian flu.
Figure 13.4 Chemical structure of shikimic acid.
Figure 13.5 Synthesis of shikimic acid via Dials-Alder reaction [81].
Figure 13.6 Shikimic acid synthesis [83].
Figure 13.7 Chemical conversion of (-)-Quinic acid to (-)-Shikimic acid.
Figure 13.8 Shikimic acid pathway.
Figure 13.9 Applications of shikimic acid.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Glycerol metabolism in K. pneumoniae showing the production of 1,3-PDO.
Figure 14.2 Production of glycerol from glucose.
Figure 14.3 Conversion of glucose/glycerol to 1,3-PDO by the expression of glycerol-3-phosphatase...
Figure 14.4 Metabolic engineering for the production of 1,3-PDO from D-glucose [147].

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Structure of Chitin (a) and Chitosan (b).
Figure 15.2 Forms of chitin: (a) α-chitin, (b) β-chitin and (c) γ-chitin.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Transmission electron micrograph of Pseudomonas cells with intracellular...
Figure 16.2 General Structure, specific examples and common applications of PHAs [4].
Figure 16.3 PHA biosynthetic pathways [102] PhaA, 3-ketothiolase; PhaB, (R)-3-ketoacyl-CoA...

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Commonly used industrial enzymes and their applications.
Table 1.2 Operations for the recovery of cell-bound enzymes [44].
Table 1.3 Main industrial enzymes producers.

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Report of working group on leather & leather products twelfth five year...
Table 2.2 (Manual for oxazolidine leather tanning LIFE08 ENV/E/000140) [13].
Table 2.3 Sources and properties of some of the alkaline proteases used in dehairing.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Major enzymes used in the processing of textiles.
Table 3.2 Companies involved in commercial synthesis of textile enzymes and their products.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Ligninolytic enzymes and their main reactions [10-13],
Table 4.2 Characteristics of the main ligninolytic enzymes [14–16].
Table 4.3 Recent studies on ligninolytic enzyme production using different substrates under...

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Contemporary intervention in fermentation processing.
Table 5.2 Testing parameter of Asava-arishta.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Algae as bioresources for PUFA production (adapted from spolaore et al.,...
Table 6.2 Microbial sources of PUFAs.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Fermented functional foods.
Table 7.2 Non-fermented functional foods.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Some common culture media used for the cultivation of cyanobacteria.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Fermentation conditions for certain herbal formulations.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Health benefits of probiotics isolated from diverse sources.
Table 10.2 Commercial probiotic products, sources and developer companies [33–35].

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 List of approved probiotic strains by Food Safety and Standards Authority of India...
Table 11.2 Comparison of the properties of eukaryotic (Yeast) and prokaryotic (Bacteria)...
Table 11.3 Evidence based indications for eukaryotic probiotic saccharomyces boulardii...
Table 11.4 Commercially available eukaryotic probiotic products.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Classification of main homopolysaccharides according to the monomeric sugar...
Table 12.2 Fungal species and their corresponding bioactive polysaccharides.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 History of known Flu Pandemics [32–34].
Table 13.2 Physicochemical properties of shikimic acid [77].
Table 13.3 Different columns and conditions used for the detection of shikimic acid by HPLC.
Table 13.4 Distribution of shikimic acid in the organs of various plants.

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Structure and other general properties of 1,3-PDO.
Table 14.2 List of the 1,3-PDO concentration, yield and productivities reported by different...

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Chitin extraction employing microorganisms and enzyme.
Table 15.2 Chitin and Chitosan based commercial products.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Comparison of properties of SCL-PHAs, MCL-PHAs and their copolymers with...
Table 16.2 PH As biosynthesis from renewable sources.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-119-55483-7

Foreword

From last two decades we have witnesses unprecedented growth and development in biotechnology positioning the bioeconomy as a major indicator of advancement. Today, the global fermentation-based industry is already worth over 127 billion dollars. Based on the experience and expertise in this filed, we are trying to collect the different technologies advancement and products developed in biotechnology. This book ‘High Value Fermentation Products-Volume II (Human Welfare) is divided into various important sections related to Human Health like antibiotics, sugar & sugar alcohols, enzymes, nutraceuticals, metabolic engineered derived products, this will help the readers to understand the importance of fermentation derived product for the betterment of human health. This book will also help to overcome of various bottle necks of the Industry/ scientific community and shall be useful for the betterment of the society and environment. This book will also shares an insight into the recent research, cutting edge technologies, high value products, industrial demand which bring immense interest among young and brilliant researchers, cultivated scientists, industry personnals and talented student communities. The contents of the book have been designed in such a way that it is providing extensive coverage of new developments, state of the art technologies, current and future trends in biotechnology and fermentation. The reader will be introduced with basic and advanced methodologies on industrial microbiology and fermentation technology. The main goal of this book is to share and enhance the knowledge of each and every individual in this fermentation world.

Ram A Vishwakarma

Director, CSIR-IIIM

Acknowledgements

The Editors take this opportunity to gratefully acknowledge the assistance and contribution of the people who have faith in us in this undertaking for compiling of the Book “High Value Fermentation Products”-Volume II (Human Welfare).

We are in debt of Dr. Ram A. Vishwakarma, Director, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu for his valuable and esteemed guidance to carry out this task. His scholarship and authorative knowledge has been a great source of motivation and inspiration.

First and foremost, it is not enough to express our gratitude in words to all the contributors for devotion and providing excellent matter of chapters on time.

The help and support provided by Mr. Chand Ji Raina, Mr. R.K. Khajuria and Mrs. Urmila Jamwal, was important and we acknowledge all of them with sincere thanks.

We are also thankful to the students of Fermentation Technology Division, CSIR-IIIM for their sincere efforts, dedication and determination to achieve objectives for the completion of this task in a given time.

Where emotions are involved, words cease to mean for our family members for the consistent motivation during the planning and edition of this book.

We avail the opportunity to express our heartiest thanks to ‘Almighty’ for pouring His care and blessings throughout and making this work a success.

Saurabh Saran

Vikash Babu

Asha Chaubey

Preface

Fermentation processes are being used for generations to meet the requirements for sustainable production of enzymes, food & dairy products and nutraceutical products etc. Thus, the modern biotechnology offers numerous opportunities for human welfare. Fermentation processes involve the proven scientific and engineering principles by biological agents. It uses variety of microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast and fungi for production of variety of value added products and biomolecules such as enzymes, antibiotics, hormones, organic acids, drug precursors and other metabolites.

The book entitled “High Value Fermentation Products” has been divided in two volumes namely, Human Health and Human Welfare. The Volume 1 of the book has 18 chapters focussed on basics to fermentation technology, antibiotics & immunosuppressants, antibodies, peptides & proteins, sugars & sugar alcohols and metabolic engineering derived products. The Volume 2 of the book with the theme ‘Human Welfare” has 16 chapters which primarily focus on enzymes, nutraceuticals, probiotics, biopolymers, and organic acids. The first chapter entitled ‘Challenges and opportunities for the production of industrial enzymes by fermentation’ aims to provide the insights on the industrial enzymes, their bioprocess and associated challenges. The second chapter on ‘Biotechnology of leather: An alternative to conventional leather processing’ provides the techniques and enzymatic methods involved in leather processing, an alternative green approach in leather processing. The third chapter on ‘Enzyme catalysis: a workforce to productivity of textile industry’ compiles the various enzymes involved in the textile industry. The fourth chapter entitled ‘Current trends in the production of ligninolytic enzymes’ highlights the recent biotechnology driven fermentation approaches for production of ligninolytic enzymes. Fifth chapter emphasizes on production of Ayurvedic preparations, i.e. Asava & Arishtas by fermentation. Production and applications of poly unsaturated fatty acids have been elaborated in the sixth chapter. Seventh chapter on ‘Functional foods and their health benefits’ provides information the importance of functions foods. The eighth chapter entitled ‘Industrially important biomolecules from cyanobacteria’ describes various types of biomolecules produced by cyanobacteria. ‘Augmenting bioactivity of plant based foods using fermentation’, the ninth chapter of the book elaborates the bioactivities of plant based fermentation products. The tenth chapter ‘Probiotic intervention for human health and disease’ emphasizes on the probiotics and their importance in human health and protection against diseases. Eleventh chapter of the volume elaborates the Saccharomyces sp. based probiotics. Chapter twelve entitled ‘Bioactive polysaccharides produced by microorganisms: Production and applications’ elaborates various polysaccharides produced by microorganisms, their bioactivities and applications. Thirteenth chapter ‘Shikimic acid: A compound of industrial interest with respect to swine/avian flu’ is focused on an important compound, shikimik acid with special reference to swine flu. ‘1,3-Propanediol: From Waste to Wardrobe’ is the fourteenth chapter of the volume, which talks about another important compound with innumerable applications. Fifteenth chapter ‘Biomedical and Nutraceutical Applications of Chitin and Chitosan’ explains wide applications of chitin and chitosan. The last chapter of the volume 2 of the book is ‘Microbial polyhydroxyalkanoates: current status and future prospects’ which elaborates the features and importance of polyhydroxyalkanoates with wide industrial applications.

In the Volume-2 of the book ‘High Value Fermentation Products’, editors have tried their best to compile contributions that provide applications and recent trends in the area of fermentation based processes for production of enzymes, biopolymers, probiotics and other nutraceuticals.

About the Editors

Dr. Saurabh Saran, PhD, is a Fermentation Scientist having experience in Industrial microbiology, Biotechnology and Fermentation Technology for more than 15 years. Dr. Saran has completed his PhD from Delhi University, India. Dr. Saran has got hands-on experience in working both industries and academic. He has worked in the industries like Reliance Industries Ltd., India. Later he was appointed as a Research Professor at Republic of Korea, South Korea. He has also worked as a Coordinator at the Technology Based Incubator, Delhi University South Campus, Delhi, Inida. Presently, he is working as a Senior Scientist, Fermentation technology division, CSIR-IIIM, Jammu, India. He has an expertise on the screening, isolation, production and scale up of Industrial Enzymes, Biochemicals & Biofuels. Expert in process development/engineering, scale up to 5L, 10L, 30L, 100, 300 L & 500L fermentation size, (batch, fed batch and continuation fermentation) strain engineering, downstream processing and applications of industrially important biomolecules. To my credentials, I have 3 patents and more than 25 international publications in peer reviewed international journals on fermentation technology.

Dr. Vikash Babu, PhD was born in Bulandshahr district of Uttar Pradesh, India on 1st September 1981. He did his Bachelor’s degree from I.P (PG) College Bulandshahr, India. After qualifying all India combined entrance exam for biotechnology conducted by JNU, New Delhi, India, he did his degree in Biotechnology from Kumaun University, Nainital. After completing his M.Sc degree, he qualified many national level competitive exams such as DBT-JRF- 2005, CSIR-UGC NET for lecturership- Dec. 2004 & June 2005 and GATE-2005. In Nov. 2005, he joined as a DBT-JRF in the Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee under the superivision of Dr. Bijan Choudhury and registered for the Ph.D in the same department and Institute and completed his Ph.D degree in the year 2011. After finishing his Ph.D research work he joined Mangalayatan University, Beswan, Aligarh (India) as a lecturer. He left Manglayatan University in the year 2012 and joined Graphic Era University, Dehradun (India) as an assistant professor where he worked till June 2013. Currently, he is working as a scientist in CSIR-IIIM.

Dr. Asha Chaubey, Ph.D is Principal Scientist and Head of Fermentation Technology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu, India. She has about 15 years of research experience in the area of enzymology and fermentation technology. She is actively engaged in development of indigenous process development. Her research interests include exploration and exploitation of microorganisms for production of enzymes and bioactives in special reference to industrial applications. She has published research articles in the area of bioactives production, enzyme immobilization, biotransformation, kinetic resolution of racemic drug intermediates. She has also published several review articles and has been actively involved in the development of biosensors for health care and environmental monitoring and has several patents on lactate and cholesterol biosensors.