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To our families
Government policy in the pursuit of a carbon‐neutral world economy has been a commitment adopted by an increasing number of industrial nations. However, for the foreseeable future, fossil fuels in which hydrocarbons will play a significant role are likely to remain the primary source of energy.
There is a continuing drive to increase the life of existing oil and gas field developments through a number of avenues. These include, for example, tie‐backs from nearby smaller reservoirs, otherwise uneconomic to develop alone, and by increasing the recovery rate from existing fields. The average commonly reported recovery rates after primary (natural flow under existing reservoir pressure) and secondary (e.g. water injection, hydraulic fracking) enhancement operations for oil are between 35% and 45%. This could potentially be increased in certain reservoirs by a further 5–15% through tertiary recovery methods (e.g. reducing reservoir oil viscosity by CO2 flooding, steam, or surfactant injection). Nevertheless, there remains a continuing search for new economic sources of hydrocarbons, taking exploration activities into harsher environments through deep high pressure/high temperature (HPHT) wells, into geographically remote and/or increasing environmentally sensitive areas and deep water. This enterprise has created increased challenges: (i) to the economics of project development and field operations; (ii) on the performance envelope of existing oilfield technology; and (iii) in meeting Health, Safety and Environment (HS&E) commitments which can impact the Licence to Operate (LTO). Ensuring the mechanical integrity of facilities is therefore paramount. The accurate prediction of materials’ performance and their optimised selection in tandem with pro‐active corrosion mitigation are primary considerations at design and throughout a field's operating life.
Hydrocarbons‐producing facilities and infrastructures are potentially subject to both external and internal corrosion threats; in the case of the former from hostile and geographically remote operating environments, and in the latter from the presence of wet produced fluids and acid gases. Both these threat types impact materials selection, engineering design, and through life integrity management (IM).
Corrosion in its various forms remains a major potential threat to successful hydrocarbons production and its optimum control and management are essential to the cost‐effective design of facilities and their safe operations. Its impact can be viewed in terms of effect on capital and operational expenditure (CAPEX and OPEX) and HS&E and associated process safety risks. It is, therefore, essential to have a sound corrosion design and management philosophy for production facilities to safely handle and transport wet hydrocarbons enabling integrity assurance and trouble‐free operations. Such a philosophy can be used in the technical/commercial assessment of new field development and in prospect evaluation, to prolong the life of ageing assets and, for handling sour fluids by facilities not normally designed for sour service. The book sets out to provide such a philosophy in a pragmatic manner.
The book is intended to be suitable for both practising materials and corrosion engineers working in hydrocarbons production as well as those entering the area who may not be fully familiar with the subject. It is not a textbook; rather it is a practical manual/ready reference source to steer design and operations engineers to currently established best practice drawn on the many years' global experience of the book's authors and contributors. It embodies over 500 years of cumulative field and engineering experience.
The primary focus is on operational and engineering aspects by capturing the current understanding of corrosion processes in upstream operations and providing an overview of the parameters and measures needed for optimum design of facilities. Emphasis is placed on material optimisation which is structured by presenting user‐friendly roadmaps. The book is intended to act as an applied tool focusing on engineering features of corrosion and materials.
Chapters on internal corrosion address: the types and morphology of corrosion damage; the principal metallic materials deployed; and mitigating measures to optimise its occurrence. Chapters on external corrosion address corrosion under insulation (CUI), external coating systems and cathodic protection (CP). In addition, a chapter has been assigned to systematically quantifying the level of in‐service risk of corrosion, presented in terms of likelihood and consequence, in order to prioritise operational risk. Together with a broader overview of corrosion and integrity management, outlined is a structured and performance‐managed approach to the provision of safe and trouble‐free operations through an integrated cross‐discipline methodology and approach. This is an integral part of meeting compliance with HS&E requirements and legislation and risk management: a primary purpose behind the broader remit of IM.
The book captures and provides solutions via four principal avenues for upstream hydrocarbon operations from reservoir to the refinery and petrochemical plants:
The final chapter considers the future outlook in energy demand and supply, translating these into technology challenges facing the hydrocarbon production industry sector, which in turn shapes the materials and corrosion technology themes necessary to deliver business success and continuously improve safety, security, and minimise impact on the environment.
It should be noted that there is never a single answer to a potential challenge. The solution may invariably be drawn from a number of options, the convergence of which can lead to an optimum outcome. It is against this background that the book is compiled, allowing flexibility in choice having considered all credible corrosion threats and their respective mitigation. The importance of failure analysis in allowing lessons to be learnt is highlighted, together with the importance of in‐house, national and international standards in effective implementation of corrosion management and strategy.
The book represents much more than merely a compilation of individual experience and thinking on selected topics. The authors would like to express their appreciations to all who have contributed their time and effort to ensuring its successful completion. The authors wish to acknowledge the significant inputs from:
Contributions from a number of individuals in relation to their steer in setting the focus and comments on specific chapters or elements are very much appreciated. These include Dr Ed Wade (UK) and Dr Bruce Craig (USA). Notably, Dr Wade made positive and constructive comments and corrective suggestions on many themes considered vital in moving forward. And contributions from Professor Ali Mosleh (USA) and Mr Mehdi Askari (Iran) in reviewing selective chapters and their valuable comments are acknowledged. Provision of a few photographs by Mr Matt Dabiri (US) is highly appreciated.
Particular thanks go to Professor Vic Ashworth (UK) who meticulously reviewed all the chapters and made significant and valuable comments – his efforts and contributions are greatly appreciated. Finally, the wide‐ranging inputs from Dr Jean‐Louis Crolet (France) throughout the development and completion of the book are acknowledged and appreciated.