reading

Cover
Title Page
Preface
List of Abbreviations
Nomenclature
1 Introduction
1. 1.1 Classification of Hybrid Electric Vehicles
2. 1.2 General Architectures of Hybrid Electric Vehicles
3. 1.3 Typical Layouts of the Parallel Hybrid Electric Propulsion System
4. 1.4 Hybrid Electric Vehicle System Components
5. 1.5 Hybrid Electric Vehicle System Analysis
6. 1.6 Controls of Hybrid Electric Vehicles
7. References
2 Basic Components of Hybrid Electric Vehicles
1. 2.1 The Prime Mover
2. 2.2 Electric Motor with a DC–DC Converter and a DC–AC Inverter
3. 2.3 Energy Storage System
4. 2.4 Transmission System in Hybrid Electric Vehicles
5. References
3 Hybrid Electric Vehicle System Modeling
1. 3.1 Modeling of an Internal Combustion Engine
2. 3.2 Modeling of an Electric Motor
3. 3.3 Modeling of the Battery System
4. 3.4 Modeling of the Transmission System
5. 3.5 Modeling of a Multi‐mode Electrically Variable Transmission
6. 3.6 Lever Analogy as a Tool for ECVT Kinematic Analysis
7. 3.7 Modeling of the Vehicle Body
8. 3.8 Modeling of the Final Drive and Wheel
9. 3.9 PID‐based Driver Model
10. References
4 Power Electronics and Electric Motor Drives in Hybrid Electric Vehicles
1. 4.1 Basic Power Electronic Devices
2. 4.2 DC–DC Converters
3. 4.3 DC–AC Inverters
4. 4.4 Electric Motor Drives
5. 4.5 Plug‐in Battery Charger Design
6. References
5 Energy Storage System Modeling and Control
1. 5.1 Introduction
2. 5.2 Methods of Determining the State of Charge
3. 5.3 Estimation of Battery Power Availability
4. 5.4 Battery Life Prediction
5. 5.5 Cell Balancing
6. 5.6 Estimation of Cell Core Temperature
7. 5.7 Battery System Efficiency
8. References
6 Energy Management Strategies for Hybrid Electric Vehicles
1. 6.1 Introduction
2. 6.2 Rule‐based Energy Management Strategy
3. 6.3 Fuzzy‐logic‐based Energy Management Strategy
4. 6.4 Determination of the Optimal ICE Operational Points of Hybrid Electric Vehicles
5. 6.5 Cost‐function‐based Optimal Energy Management Strategy
6. 6.6 Optimal Energy Management Strategy Incorporated with Cycle Pattern Recognition
7. References
7 Other Hybrid Electric Vehicle Control Problems
1. 7.1 Basics of Internal Combustion Engine Control
2. 7.2 Engine Torque Fluctuation Dumping Control Through the Electric Motor
3. 7.3 High‐voltage Bus Spike Control
4. 7.4 Thermal Control of an HEV Battery System
5. 7.5 HEV/EV Traction Motor Control
6. 7.6 Active Suspension Control in HEV/EV Systems
7. 7.7 Adaptive Charge‐sustaining Setpoint and Adaptive Recharge SOC Determination for PHEVs
8. 7.8 Online Tuning Strategy of the SOC Lower Bound in CS Operational Mode
9. 7.9 PHEV Battery CS‐operation Nominal SOC Setpoint Online Tuning
10. References
8 Plug‐in Charging Characteristics, Algorithm, and Impact on the Power Distribution System
1. 8.1 Introduction
2. 8.2 Plug‐in Hybrid Vehicle Battery System and Charging Characteristics
3. 8.3 Battery Life and Safety Impacts of Plug‐in Charging Current and Temperature
4. 8.4 Plug‐in Charging Control
5. 8.5 Impacts of Plug‐in Charging on the Electricity Network
6. 8.6 Optimal Plug‐in Charging Strategy
7. References
9 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Vibration, Noise, and Control
1. 9.1 Basics of Noise and Vibration
2. 9.2 General Description of Noise, Vibration, and Control in Hybrid Electric Vehicles
3. References
10 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Design and Performance Analysis
1. 10.1 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Simulation System
2. 10.2 Typical Test Driving Cycles
3. 10.3 Sizing Components and Vehicle Performance Analysis
4. 10.4 Fuel Economy, Emissions, and Electric Mileage Calculation
5. References
Appendix A: System Identification, State and Parameter Estimation Techniques
1. A.1 Dynamic System and Mathematical Models
2. A.2 Parameter Estimation for Dynamic Systems
3. A.3 State Estimation for Dynamic Systems
4. A.4 Joint State and Parameter Estimation for Dynamic Systems
5. A.5 Enhancement of Numerical Stability in Parameter and State Estimation
6. A.6 Procedure of Modeling and Parameter Identification
7. References
Appendix B: Advanced Dynamic System Control Techniques
1. B.1 Pole Placement in Control Systems
2. B.2 Optimal Control
3. B.3 Stochastic and Adaptive Control
4. B.4 Fault‐tolerant Control
5. References
Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 01
1. Table 1.1 The main features and capabilities of various hybrid electric vehicles
Chapter 02
1. Table 2.1 Basic technical requirements for a lead–acid cell in HEV/EV applications
2. Table 2.2 Basic technical requirements for an NiMH cell in HEV/EV applications
3. Table 2.3 Characteristics of common Li‐ion battery cathode materials
4. Table 2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of common Li‐ion batteries with different cathode materials
5. Table 2.5 Basic technical requirements for a Li‐ion cell in HEV/EV applications
Chapter 03
1. Table 3.1 The fuel consumption mapping data of a 1.8 L diesel engine (mL/s)
2. Table 3.2 The efficiency (%) of the motor/generator set
3. Table 3.3 Battery model parameters of a 4.4 Ahr battery system at 25 °C at the beginning of the system’s life
4. Table 3.4 The states of the clutches and the power split device in the hybrid vehicle system illustrated in Fig. 3.25
5. Table 3.5 Some operational speeds of the given ECVT
Chapter 04
1. Table 4.1 States and output voltages of the voltage source three‐phase inverter
2. Table 4.2 States of Hall sensors and power switches for a motor rotating in a clockwise direction
3. Table 4.3 States of Hall sensors and power switches for a motor rotating in a counter‐clockwise direction
4. Table 4.4 Typical technical specification parameters for BLDC motors in HEV/EV applications
Chapter 05
1. Table 5.1 The SOC (%) look‐up chart indexed by V_oc (V) and temperature (°C) of a system with 32 4.5 Ahr Li‐ion batteries
2. Table 5.2 Extracted model parameters based on HPPC test at 50% SOC and 25 °C for a 5.3 Ahr Li‐ion cell
3. Table 5.3 Operational limits of the 5.3 Ahr Li‐ion battery cell at 50% SOC and 25 °C
4. Table 5.4 Calculated power availabilities using different methods of the example cell at 50% SOC and 25 °C
5. Table 5.5 Cycle life test result for a Li‐ion battery at 25 °C for plug‐in hybrid vehicle application
6. Table 5.6 Performed cycle number for Example 5.7 over the usage profile given in Example 5.5
7. Table 5.7 Vehicle operation profile
8. Table 5.8 Efficiencies of a Li‐ion battery system for HEV application
Chapter 06
1. Table 6.1 The values of the characteristic function in crisp sets and the membership function in fuzzy sets
2. Table 6.2 Fuzzy logic rules of an energy management strategy for an HEV
3. Table 6.3 Formularized fuzzy logic rules
4. Table 6.4 Corresponding engine‐mapping data for optimizing the operational points
5. Table 6.5 Values of objective function one (J₁) at each power requirement point
6. Table 6.6 Evaluated results in the period of 10 ms
Chapter 07
1. Table 7.1 BOL Li‐ion battery pack electrical equivalent circuit model parameters
Chapter 08
1. Table 8.1 Maximal plug‐in charge current of a PHEV battery pack
2. Table 8.2 Example of the calculated battery SOC and temperature corresponding to different charging power during the ith charging period
3. Table 8.3 Operational efficiency of the given plug‐in charger
4. Table 8.4 Charging efficiency of the given battery system
5. Table 8.5 Given price of electrical energy
6. Table 8.6 Calculated charging schedule
Chapter 09
1. Table 9.1 Sound velocities and wavelengths in different materials commonly used in road vehicles
2. Table 9.2 Central and approximate cut‐off frequencies (Hz) of one‐octave bands
3. Table 9.3 Central and approximate cut‐off frequencies (Hz) of one‐third‐octave bands
4. Table 9.4 Comfort levels for various acceleration levels
Chapter 10
1. Table 10.1 Summary of the UDDS, HD‐UDDS, FTP‐75, HWFET, and NYCC driving schedules
2. Table 10.2 Summary of US06, SC03, and LA92 driving schedules
3. Table 10.3 Summary of the ECE, EUDC, and EUDC‐LP driving schedules
4. Table 10.4 Summary of WLTP driving schedules
5. Table 10.5 Typical automatic transmission first and reverse gear launch requirements for drivability
6. Table 10.6 Typical automatic transmission top gear gradeability requirements
7. Table 10.7 Vehicle parameters for Example 10.1
8. Table 10.8 Specification of the selected battery cell
9. Table 10.9 Key characteristics of the five‐cycle emission and fuel economy tests
Appendix A
1. Table A.1 Computational results of Example A.4

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01
1. Figure 1.1 A rear‐wheel‐drive series hybrid electric vehicle layout
2. Figure 1.2 A rear‐wheel‐drive parallel hybrid electric vehicle layout
3. Figure 1.3 A rear‐wheel‐drive series–parallel hybrid electric vehicle layout
4. Figure 1.4 Typical parallel hybrid electrified powertrain arrangements
5. Figure 1.5 Power flow of a series hybrid electric vehicle
6. Figure 1.6 Power flow of a parallel hybrid electric vehicle
7. Figure 1.7 Typical urban cycle energy flows of a conventional powertrain and a hybrid electrified powertrain
Chapter 02
1. Figure 2.1 Torque/power vs. speed curve of a gasoline engine
2. Figure 2.2 Fuel consumption contour of a gasoline engine
3. Figure 2.3 Typical torque/power vs. speed curve of a diesel engine
4. Figure 2.4 Typical fuel efficiency contour of a diesel engine
5. Figure 2.5 Working principle of PEM fuel cells
6. Figure 2.6 Fuel cell voltage vs. current density curve
7. Figure 2.7 Fuel‐cell‐based prime mover
8. Figure 2.8 Typical curve of torque/power vs. speed of an induction motor system
9. Figure 2.9 Efficiency map of an induction motor system
10. Figure 2.10 Typical curve of torque/power vs. speed of a BLDC motor system
11. Figure 2.11 Efficiency map of a BLDC motor system
12. Figure 2.12 Common crystalline structures of cathode materials for Li‐ion batteries.
13. Figure 2.13 The characteristics of OCV vs SOC of Li‐ion batteries made from different cathode materials
14. Figure 2.14 1C discharge profiles of Li‐ion batteries made from different electrode materials
15. Figure 2.15 Main components of a Li‐ion battery. (a) A Li‐ion pouch cell; (b) section A–A view: structure and main components of a Li‐ion cell
16. Figure 2.16 A simple ECVT schematic diagram
17. Figure 2.17 Mechanical diagram of an ECVT gear system
18. Figure 2.18 Section diagram of an ECVT housing
Chapter 03
1. Figure 3.1 Frictional and compression torque of an internal combustion engine. (a) Static friction torque; (b) Coulomb friction torque; (c) the functional relationship between viscous friction torque and angular velocity; (d) the functional relationship between the compression torque and angular velocity
2. Figure 3.2 Engine idle speed control principle
3. Figure 3.3 Typical maximal torque vs. speed curve of a gasoline engine
4. Figure 3.4 Diagram of the fuel consumption and emissions calculation
5. Figure 3.5 Engine cranking model
6. Figure 3.6 Cranking speed response of the engine. (a) The power characteristics of the engine accessory; (b) the cranking speed response of the engine
7. Figure 3.7 Diagram of engine idle control
8. Figure 3.8 EPA urban dynamometer driving schedule
9. Figure 3.9 The power demand on the engine shaft over the EPA urban cycle
10. Figure 3.10 The set of operational points of the engine
11. Figure 3.11 Diagram of the electric motor model in propulsion mode
12. Figure 3.12 Diagram of the electric motor model in regenerative mode
13. Figure 3.13 US06 drive cycle
14. Figure 3.14 The electric motor speed over the US06 drive cycle
15. Figure 3.15 The demand torque on the electric motor driveshaft over the US06 drive cycle
16. Figure 3.16 The maximal allowable torque of an electric motor
17. Figure 3.17 The current demand on the high‐voltage bus over the US06 drive cycle
18. Figure 3.18 Electrochemical operation of a battery cell (dashed lines: discharge flow; dotted lines: charge flow)
19. Figure 3.19 The electrical circuit equivalent model of a battery
20. Figure 3.20 (a) Entire HPPC test sequence; (b) the detailed test pulse at each SOC level
21. Figure 3.21 Hybrid pulse power characterization test
22. Figure 3.22 The battery test current profile
23. Figure 3.23 Actual and model‐predicted battery terminal voltages
24. Figure 3.24 Battery SOC varying range over the battery usage test profile
25. Figure 3.25 The conceptual architecture of an input split hybrid electric vehicle. (a) The conceptual architecture; (b) a schematic of the planetary gear set
26. Figure 3.26 Diagram of an automatic transmission model
27. Figure 3.27 Model diagrams of the power split device with clutches in a hybrid electric vehicle transmission. (a) Clutch control signal is 011; (b) clutch control signal is 101; (c) clutch control signal is 110; (d) clutch control signal is 111
28. Figure 3.28 A diagram of the torque converter model
29. Figure 3.29 The model diagram of a gearbox
30. Figure 3.30 A simple ECVT schematic diagram
31. Figure 3.31 Curve of ICE operational speed vs. vehicle speed
32. Figure 3.32 One‐mode ECVT power flow chart under a low power demand operational condition (highway cruising)
33. Figure 3.33 One‐mode ECVT power flow chart under a high power demand operational condition (WOT acceleration)
34. Figure 3.34 A two‐mode EVT schematic diagram
35. Figure 3.35 Schematic cross‐section of the two‐mode ECVT
36. Figure 3.36 Compound planetary gear set with double planetary gears
37. Figure 3.37 Optimal operation curves of the ICE under low and high power conditions
38. Figure 3.38 Operational power of two‐mode ECVT under low power conditions
39. Figure 3.39 Operational power of two‐mode ECVT under high power conditions
40. Figure 3.40 Operational speed of two‐mode ECVT under low power conditions
41. Figure 3.41 Operational speed of two‐mode ECVT under high power conditions
42. Figure 3.42 Simple planetary gear set lever analogy diagram. (a) Stick diagram, (b) Lever diagram case A, (c) Lever diagram case B
43. Figure 3.43 Compound planetary gear set lever analogy diagram. (a) Stick diagram, (b) Lever diagram case A, (c) Lever diagram case B
44. Figure 3.44 Diagram of two interconnected planetary gear sets
45. Figure 3.45 Lever analogy diagram for two interconnected planetary gear sets. (a) Lever diagram for procedure 1; (b) lever diagram for procedure 2
46. Figure 3.46 Lever analogy diagram of the first‐mode ECVT. (a) Stick diagram; (b) lever analogy diagram; (c) rescale the lever analogy diagram; (d) combined lever analogy diagram with gear‐shafts speed
47. Figure 3.47 Lever analogy diagram of the second‐mode ECVT. (a) Stick diagram; (b) lever analogy diagram; (c) rescale the lever analogy diagram; (d) combined lever analogy diagram with gear‐shaft speed
48. Figure 3.48 Free body diagram of a vehicle
49. Figure 3.49 The road load of the vehicle given in Example 3.8
50. Figure 3.50 Block diagram of a PID control algorithm
Chapter 04
1. Figure 4.1 The symbol (a), structure (b), and i‐v characteristics (c) of a diode
2. Figure 4.2 The symbol (a), structure (b), and i‐v characteristics (c) of a thyristor
3. Figure 4.3 The electrical circuit symbol and pn‐structure of a transistor. (a) PNP transistor, (b) NPN transistor
4. Figure 4.4 The steady‐state input and output characteristics of an npn transistor. (a) Common‐emitter circuit diagram, (b) Input characteristics, (c) Output (i‐v) characteristics
5. Figure 4.5 Circuit symbol and output characteristics of an n‐channel MOSFET. (a) The n‐channel MOSFET symbol and circuit diagram, (b) Output characteristics
6. Figure 4.6 Transfer characteristics of n‐channel depletion‐type and enhancement‐type MOSFETs. (a) The n-channel depletion‐type MOSFET, (b) The n‐channel enhancement‐type MOSFET
7. Figure 4.7 Steady‐state equivalent circuit of an n‐channel MOSFET
8. Figure 4.8 Switching‐mode equivalent circuit of an n‐channel MOSFET
9. Figure 4.9 Circuit symbol and equivalent circuit of an IGBT. (a) Circuit symbol of IGBT, (b) The equivalent circuit of IGBT
10. Figure 4.10 Typical transfer and i‐v characteristics of an IGBT. (a) Transfer characteristics, (b) i‐v characteristics
11. Figure 4.11 Basic principle circuit of a DC–DC converter. (a) Principle circuit diagram, (b) The switching control signal
12. Figure 4.12 PWM switch control diagram. (a) A PWM control diagram, (b) Periodic saw-tooth waveform and PWM control signal formation
13. Figure 4.13 Principle circuit for step‐down converters
14. Figure 4.14 Switch ON (a) and switch OFF (b) equivalent circuits of step‐down converters
15. Figure 4.15 Inductor current and voltage waveforms of the buck converter
16. Figure 4.16 Discontinuous‐conduction operational mode for buck converters
17. Figure 4.17 Output voltage ripple of buck converters
18. Figure 4.18 DC converter with a battery pack. (a) Schematic circuit, (b) Current waveform
19. Figure 4.19 Principle circuit of boost converters
20. Figure 4.20 Principle circuit of boost converters corresponding with the switch being (a) ON and (b) OFF
21. Figure 4.21 Inductor voltage and current on the continuous‐conduction mode of the boost converter
22. Figure 4.22 Capacitor charge and output voltage ripple of boost converters
23. Figure 4.23 Principle circuit of buck‐boost converters
24. Figure 4.24 Equivalent circuits for (a) switch ON and (b) switch OFF states in buck‐boost converters
25. Figure 4.25 Inductor voltage and current in the continuous‐conduction mode of a buck‐boost converter
26. Figure 4.26 Capacitor charge and output voltage ripple of buck‐boost converters
27. Figure 4.27 Principle circuit of a buck‐boost‐converter‐based PHEV battery charger
28. Figure 4.28 Principle circuit of a full‐bridge isolated buck converter
29. Figure 4.29 Main waveforms in steady‐state operation for a full‐bridge isolated buck converter
30. Figure 4.30 The principle circuit of a four‐quadrant DC–DC converter with a DC motor load. (a) Principle circuit, (b) The quadrant
31. Figure 4.31 Principle circuit of DC–AC inverters. (a) Principle circuit with resistive load, (b) Principle circuit with inductive load
32. Figure 4.32 Waveforms of the inverter principle circuit with resistive load
33. Figure 4.33 Waveforms of the inverter principle circuit with inductive load
34. Figure 4.34 Principle circuit and main waveforms of the single‐phase full‐bridge inverter. (a) Principle circuit of the single phase full bridge voltage source inverter, (b) The quadrant, (c) Main waveforms
35. Figure 4.35 Principle circuit of three‐phase bridge inverters
36. Figure 4.36 Voltage waveforms between the three terminals
37. Figure 4.37 Stator and rotor diagram of a BLDC motor. (a) The configuration of a rotor with 2 pairs of poles and 3 phase stator with 6 coils, (b) The electrical diagram of three phase stator
38. Figure 4.38 Magnetic field rotation (a) step 1; (b) step 2; (c) step 3; (d) step 4; (e) step 5; (f) step 6
39. Figure 4.39 Hall sensor signal, back emf, and output torque waveforms
40. Figure 4.40 Four‐quadrant operation of the electric motor in an HEV/EV
41. Figure 4.41 PID control diagram of a BLDC motor for HEV/EV applications
42. Figure 4.42 Torque–speed characteristics of BLDC motors for HEV/EV applications. (a) The principle torque‐speed characteristic curve, (b) The specified torque‐speed characteristic curve
43. Figure 4.43 Typical structure of a squirrel cage rotor for an AC induction motor
44. Figure 4.44 The equivalent circuit of an AC induction motor in steady‐state operation. (a) The equivalent circuit (b) The Thevenin equivalent circuit
45. Figure 4.45 Torque–speed characteristics of an AC induction motor. (a) Nature torque‐speed characteristics (b) The specified torque‐speed characteristics
46. Figure 4.46 Stationary frame three‐phase (a, b, c) to two‐phase orthogonal (d, q) axes transformation. (a) Stationary frame (a, b, c) to (d, q) axes transformation, (b) Three phase (a, b, c) axes, (c) Two phase orthogonal (d,q) axes
47. Figure 4.47 Stationary frame (d, q) to synchronous frame (D, Q) transformation
48. Figure 4.48 Block diagram of vector control for an AC induction motor in HEV/EV applications
49. Figure 4.49 General architecture of a PHEV/BEV battery charger
50. Figure 4.50 Voltage waveforms of a full‐bridge rectifier with a filter capacitor
51. Figure 4.51 The AC power triangle
52. Figure 4.52 Input voltage and current of the full‐bridge rectifier with filter capacitor
53. Figure 4.53 Operating principle of a PFC
54. Figure 4.54 Process required to charge a PHEV/BEV battery
55. Figure 4.55 PHEV/BEV charging control scheme
Chapter 05
1. Figure 5.1 Diagram of required ESS algorithms for HEV/PHEV/EV application
2. Figure 5.2 Diagram of current integration-based SOC estimation
3. Figure 5.3 Estimation error caused by sensor accuracy for the given current profile. (a) The calculated SOC; (b) the current profile
4. Figure 5.4 Estimation error caused by measuring power loss for the given current profile
5. Figure 5.5 Capacity vs. temperature for a Li‐ion battery cell
6. Figure 5.6 Coulombic charging efficiency vs. temperature for a Li‐ion battery cell
7. Figure 5.7 Example of a charge‐depleting current profile of a PHEV battery system
8. Figure 5.8 Calculated SOC based on the Coulomb counting method over the given current profile
9. Figure 5.9 Relationship between V_oc and the SOC of a Li‐ion battery cell
10. Figure 5.10 Electrical circuit equivalent model of a battery
11. Figure 5.11 Diagram of the voltage‐based SOC estimation method
12. Figure 5.12 The battery usage profiles. (a) The battery’s current (charge: +, discharge: −); (b) the battery’s terminal voltage; (c) the battery’s temperature
13. Figure 5.13 Estimated V_oc and SOC over the given profiles. (a) The estimated open‐circuit voltage of the battery pack; (b) the estimated battery SOC using the voltage‐based approach
14. Figure 5.14 Two RC pair electrical circuit equivalent model of a battery
15. Figure 5.15 V_oc vs. SOC curve of an LiFePO₄ cell at 25 °C
16. Figure 5.16 Generalized electrical circuit equivalent model of a battery system
17. Figure 5.17 Relationship between a system’s transient response and pole location in the system
18. Figure 5.18 Voltage responses of an LiFePO4 battery cell to a 100 A step discharge current at 25 °C and different SOCs
19. Figure 5.19 Battery system model with fuzzy logic
20. Figure 5.20 Diagram of combined SOCs calculated using different approaches
21. Figure 5.21 The relationship between terminal voltage and terminal current. (a) Polarization of a battery under discharge current; (b) applied charge/discharge current at cell terminals; (c) voltage responses to the applied charge/discharge current
22. Figure 5.22 OCV–SOC relationship shifting over the calendar life of a Li‐ion battery at 35 °C and 80% SOC storage condition
23. Figure 5.23 OCV–SOC relationship shifting over 80% DoD cycle life of a Li‐ion battery at 35 °C
24. Figure 5.24 Maximal charge power availability of a Li‐ion cell at 25 °C
25. Figure 5.25 Maximal discharge power availability of a Li‐ion cell at 25 °C
26. Figure 5.26 Capacity fade with cycle number (80% DoD)
27. Figure 5.27 Internal resistance increase with storage time at 30 °C
28. Figure 5.28 Power evolution during storage at different temperatures and SOCs
29. Figure 5.29 Actual battery usage profile and the estimated battery resistance. (a) Actual battery usage profile (charge: +, discharge: −); (b) battery system terminal voltage; (c) battery system terminal current (charge: +, discharge: −); (d) the estimated battery system resistance
30. Figure 5.30 Life cycles vs. depth of discharge
31. Figure 5.31 Rainflow cycles corresponding to a given drive cycle. (a) The SOC swing diagram over a drive cycle; (b) the corresponding rainflow over the drive cycle
32. Figure 5.32 Comparsion of the discharge curves of a Li‐ion battery at C/20 at −40 °C.
33. Figure 5.33 Diagram of a current bypass cell‐balancing circuit
34. Figure 5.34 Diagram of capacitor‐based charge shuttle cell‐balancing circuit
35. Figure 5.35 Diagram of an inductive‐converter‐based cell‐balancing circuit
36. Figure 5.36 Natural balancing scenario with a lower capacity cell in the pack
37. Figure 5.37 Combined PI and feedforward cell‐balancing strategy
38. Figure 5.38 Cell‐balancing simulation model. (a) Battery system model with cell‐balancing algorithm; (b) individual cell model
39. Figure 5.39 The battery usage profile repeating the US06 drive schedule three times
40. Figure 5.40 Cell‐to‐cell parasitic load in a 32‐cell pack
41. Figure 5.41 Cell SOC variation at the start point of the evaluation period
42. Figure 5.42 Cell SOC variation after 15 weeks of vehicle operation with cell‐balancing hardware and algorithm active
43. Figure 5.43 Capacity variation of the battery pack
44. Figure 5.44 Cell SOC variation after 15 weeks of vehicle operation under the given conditions
45. Figure 5.45 Cell surface and core temperatures over an HEV driving cycle
46. Figure 5.46 Two‐parameter battery electrical circuit equivalent model
47. Figure 5.47 Cooling down or heating up process for battery temperature during the vehicle key‐off period
48. Figure 5.48 Example of a battery system efficiency test profile at 25 °C and 50% SOC
Chapter 06
1. Figure 6.1 Power split for a vehicle’s power demand based on a rule‐based energy strategy
2. Figure 6.2 Crisp set of vehicle speed
3. Figure 6.3 Fuzzy set of vehicle speed
4. Figure 6.4 Triangular fuzzy set expression
5. Figure 6.5 Trapezoidal fuzzy set expression
6. Figure 6.6 Fuzzy sets for HEV energy management
7. Figure 6.7 Fuzzy‐logic‐based HEV energy management strategy
8. Figure 6.8 Algorithmic diagram to find the optimal points for the ICE in an HEV
9. Figure 6.9 Golden section search
10. Figure 6.10 Process of optimizing operational points
11. Figure 6.11 Power versus speed (solid line) and torque versus speed (dashed line) curves of the ICE
12. Figure 6.12 Torque versus speed (solid line) and power versus speed (dashed line) curves of the generator
13. Figure 6.13 Torque versus speed (solid line) and power versus speed (dashed line) curves of the electric motor
14. Figure 6.14 Determined optimal operational points when the objective functions one and two are set as and
15. Figure 6.15 Federal urban drive schedule of the USA
16. Figure 6.16 Required ICE power over the EPA75 drive cycle
17. Figure 6.17 Manually set operational points
18. Figure 6.18 Optimized operational point curve using and
19. Figure 6.19 Fuel consumption comparison over an EPA drive cycle
20. Figure 6.20 NOx emissions comparison over an EPA drive cycle
21. Figure 6.21 CO emissions comparison over an EPA drive cycle
22. Figure 6.22 HC emissions comparison over an EPA drive cycle
23. Figure 6.23 The optimized operational points when and
24. Figure 6.24 Fuel consumption comparison over an EPA drive cycle
25. Figure 6.25 NOx emissions comparison over an EPA drive cycle
26. Figure 6.26 CO emissions comparison over an EPA drive cycle
27. Figure 6.27 HC emissions comparison over an EPA drive cycle
28. Figure 6.28 A real‐time power split optimization algorithm
29. Figure 6.29 Optimal energy management strategy with a pattern recognition algorithm
30. Figure 6.30 Entire pattern recognition algorithm
31. Figure 6.31 Optimality principle
Chapter 07
1. Figure 7.1 The torque generation process for an SI engine
2. Figure 7.2 The torque generation process for a diesel engine
3. Figure 7.3 Schematic diagram of SI engine control
4. Figure 7.4 Schematic diagram of diesel engine control
5. Figure 7.5 Torque vacillation process
6. Figure 7.6 Concept of dumping engine torque fluctuation by the motor in an HEV
7. Figure 7.7 Diagram of electric motor dumping engine torque fluctuation
8. Figure 7.8 Sliding mode control and state trajectory
9. Figure 7.9 The sliding surface
10. Figure 7.10 The performance of sliding modes
11. Figure 7.11 High‐voltage bus and the connected loads
12. Figure 7.12 (a) Power and (b) voltage profiles on the high‐voltage bus of an HEV at −20 °C
13. Figure 7.13 Architecture of overvoltage protection control
14. Figure 7.14 Bang‐bang control signal turning ON/OFF setpoint
15. Figure 7.15 Diagram of overvoltage protection fuzzy logic control
16. Figure 7.16 Thermal control diagram for an HEV/EV battery system
17. Figure 7.17 Simplified thermal loop diagram
18. Figure 7.18 Combined PID and feedforward control diagram of battery thermal control
19. Figure 7.19 Optimal control u^*(t) and the change of state T^*_ESS(t) between the initial, T_ESS(0), and the final, T_ESS(t_f), set value
20. Figure 7.20 Adhesion/slip curves.
21. Figure 7.21 Traction motor torque control in a hybrid vehicle
22. Figure 7.22 HEV/EV anti‐rollback
23. Figure 7.23 Diagrams showing (a) passive, (b) semi‐active, and (c) active suspension systems
24. Figure 7.24 Diagrams of (a) rotary motor‐based and (b) linear motor‐based electric active suspension systems
25. Figure 7.25 Free body diagram of the suspension system of a quarter car
26. Figure 7.26 PID‐based active suspension control system
27. Figure 7.27 Exerted road disturbance
28. Figure 7.28 Vehicle body responses with/without PID‐based active suspension control
29. Figure 7.29 Tire/wheel responses with/without PID‐based active suspension control
30. Figure 7.30 Actuator output based on the PID control strategy
31. Figure 7.31 Actuator output electrical power based on the PID control strategy (+ power, − regen)
32. Figure 7.32 Model predictive‐based active suspension control system
33. Figure 7.33 Vehicle body responses with/without MPC‐based active suspension control
34. Figure 7.34 Tire/wheel responses with/without MPC‐based active suspension control
35. Figure 7.35 Actuator output based on the MPC control strategy
36. Figure 7.36 Actuator output electrical power based on the model predictive control strategy (+ power, − regen)
37. Figure 7.37 Vehicle speed and electrical energy consumption over repeated US06 cycles
38. Figure 7.38 Battery SOC and electrical power over repeated US06 cycles
39. Figure 7.39 Battery energy capacity decay scenarios over service years
40. Figure 7.40 Battery ten‐second discharge power capability degradation scenarios at 10% SOC at −30 °C
41. Figure 7.41 V_oc vs. Ahr capacity characteristics of a Li‐ion battery
42. Figure 7.42 Two RC pair electrical circuit equivalent model of a battery
43. Figure 7.43 Adaptive recharge SOC termination setpoint control strategy
44. Figure 7.44 Example of battery SOC‐depleting window expansion over time
45. Figure 7.45 SOC‐depleting scenarios on repeated US06 cycles over time
46. Figure 7.46 Battery usable energy declining scenarios on repeated US06 cycles over time
47. Figure 7.47 Battery usable energy decay over time
48. Figure 7.48 The vehicle’s electric mileage loss over time
49. Figure 7.49 Battery charge‐sustaining example on repeated US06 cycles over time
50. Figure 7.50 An example of battery cold‐cranking capabilities over time at −20 °C
51. Figure 7.51 PI governing diagram of the algorithm for setting a PHEV battery lower SOC bound
52. Figure 7.52 SOC regulation process for the PI feedback control strategy
53. Figure 7.53 Battery power and vehicle speed curves from IVM to 80 mph acceleration
54. Figure 7.54 Battery kWh energy versus SOC curve around the CS‐operation zone
55. Figure 7.55 Example of a battery energy decay scenario
56. Figure 7.56 CS‐operation SOC setpoint online adaption strategy
Chapter 08
1. Figure 8.1 Current profile of a PHEV battery system when charged by an AC‐120 charger
2. Figure 8.2 Terminal voltage profile of a PHEV battery system when charged by an AC‐120 charger
3. Figure 8.3 SOC charging process of a PHEV battery system when charged by an AC‐120 charger
4. Figure 8.4 AC power‐charging profile
5. Figure 8.5 Current profile of a PHEV battery system charged by an AC‐240 charger
6. Figure 8.6 Terminal voltage profile of a PHEV battery system when charged by an AC‐240 charger
7. Figure 8.7 SOC charging process of a PHEV battery system when charged by an AC‐240 charger
8. Figure 8.8 AC power taken from an AC‐240 charger
9. Figure 8.9 Battery current profile at 3C‐rate fast charging
10. Figure 8.10 Battery terminal voltage profile during 3C‐rate fast charging at room temperature
11. Figure 8.11 Battery SOC changing curve at 3C‐rate fast charging
12. Figure 8.12 AC plug‐in charging control
13. Figure 8.13 OCV–SOC curve of an NMC‐based Li‐ion battery system at room temperature
14. Figure 8.14 PID plug‐in charging algorithm
15. Figure 8.15 Conversion from controller output to PWM duty signal
16. Figure 8.16 State‐space‐based DC fast‐charging control
17. Figure 8.17 Averaged five‐household daily load profiles in summer and winter
18. Figure 8.18 Averaged five‐household daily load plus charging of two PHEVs using an AC‐120 charger starting at 17:45 in summer and winter
19. Figure 8.19 Averaged five‐household daily load plus charging of two PHEVs using an AC‐120 charger starting at 00:00 in summer and winter
20. Figure 8.20 Averaged five‐household daily load plus charging of two PHEVs using an AC‐240 charger starting at 17:45 in summer and winter
21. Figure 8.21 Averaged five‐household daily load plus charging of two PHEVs using an AC‐240 charger starting at 00:00 in summer and winter
22. Figure 8.22 SOC usage vs. electric mileage for a PHEV
23. Figure 8.23 The actual operational SOC setpoint, end SOC point, and charge back SOC point
24. Figure 8.24 Optimal operational SOC setpoint, end SOC point, and charge back SOC point
25. Figure 8.25 The optimal plug‐in charge end point determination algorithm for PHEVs
26. Figure 8.26 Optimal plug‐in charging algorithm flow chart
27. Figure 8.27 Process of optimizing operational points using the dynamic programming method
28. Figure 8.28 Principle of the optimal decision made using the dynamic programming method
Chapter 09
1. Figure 9.1 Some typical sound pressure levels, SPLs (dB).
2. Figure 9.2 Some typical sound power levels, L_w (dB).
3. Figure 9.3 Frequency response of a one‐octave‐band filter
4. Figure 9.4 Simple free mass–spring vibration system. (a) Simple free mass‐spring system without damping, (b) Simple free mass‐spring system with damping
5. Figure 9.5 Viscous damped mass–spring vibration system. (a) An over-damped viscous‐damped motion, (b) A under‐damped viscous-damped motion
6. Figure 9.6 Simple viscous damped mass–spring system with harmonic excitation. (a) Simple viscous‐damped mass‐spring system with harmonic excitation, (b) Displacement amplitude of simple viscous‐damped mass-spring system with harmonic excitation
7. Figure 9.7 Simple source–path–receiver model
8. Figure 9.8 Driveline dynamics of hybrid electric vehicles
9. Figure 9.9 Engine speed, cranking torque, and floor vibration during a cold engine start at −25 °C
10. Figure 9.10 Gas exchange process of a four‐stroke ICE. (a) Intake stroke; (b) compression stroke; (c) power stroke; (d) exhaust stroke
11. Figure 9.11 Straight‐four engine configuration
12. Figure 9.12 Example of combustion pressure vs. ignition firing process
13. Figure 9.13 Piston stop position for engine start‐up vibration reduction
14. Figure 9.14 Cross‐section of the motor stator and rotor
15. Figure 9.15 Maxwell pressure distribution decomposition in sinusoidal force
16. Figure 9.16 Maxwell stress on the rotor
17. Figure 9.17 Static imbalance of the rotor
18. Figure 9.18 Couple imbalance of the rotor
19. Figure 9.19 Dynamic imbalance of the rotor
20. Figure 9.20 Periodic deformation of a magnetic core
21. Figure 9.21 Base operational frequency of switching mode power electronic devices
22. Figure 9.22 PI feedback with feedforward control strategy to adjust the switching frequency of power electronic devices
23. Figure 9.23 Switching frequency adjusted by a closed‐loop control strategy
24. Figure 9.24 Low‐frequency vibrations act on a vehicle chassis/body and battery pack
25. Figure 9.25 Driveline dynamics act on the battery pack
26. Figure 9.26 High‐voltage bus current of a battery‐powered electric vehicle during a repeated US06 drive cycle (positive: charge, negative: discharge)
27. Figure 9.27 High‐frequency voltage ripples superimposed on the high‐voltage bus of a PHEV
28. Figure 9.28 High‐frequency current ripples superimposed on the DC current of a PHEV
Chapter 10
1. Figure 10.1 Basic hybrid electric vehicle simulation system
2. Figure 10.2 FTP‐75 test schedule
3. Figure 10.3 EPA highway fuel economy test schedule
4. Figure 10.4 EPA urban dynamometer drive schedule
5. Figure 10.5 EPA HD‐UDDS drive schedule for heavy‐duty vehicles
6. Figure 10.6 NYCC drive schedule
7. Figure 10.7 SFTP‐US06 supplemental drive schedule
8. Figure 10.8 SC03 supplemental drive schedule
9. Figure 10.9 LA92 drive schedule
10. Figure 10.10 ECE test drive schedule
11. Figure 10.11 EUDC drive schedule
12. Figure 10.12 EUDC drive schedule for low‐power vehicles
13. Figure 10.13 NEDC drive schedule
14. Figure 10.14 WLTP drive schedule for Class 1 vehicles
15. Figure 10.15 WLTP drive schedule for Class 2 vehicles
16. Figure 10.16 WLTP drive schedule for Class 3 vehicles
17. Figure 10.17 Single cycle range and energy consumption test for battery‐powered vehicles
18. Figure 10.18 Multi‐cycle range test schedule
19. Figure 10.19 Multi‐cycle range test sequence
20. Figure 10.20 Engine speed vs. vehicle speed
21. Figure 10.21 Road load, traction limit, and 110 kW power line of the given vehicle
22. Figure 10.22 Torque–speed characteristics of the given engine
23. Figure 10.23 Traction capability of the given vehicle equipped with a one‐speed transmission
24. Figure 10.24 Traction capability of the given vehicle equipped with a two‐speed transmission
25. Figure 10.25 Traction capability of the given vehicle equipped with a three‐speed transmission
26. Figure 10.26 Traction capability of the given vehicle equipped with a four‐speed transmission
27. Figure 10.27 Diagram of arithmetic progression
28. Figure 10.28 Diagram of geometric progression
29. Figure 10.29 Diagram of harmonic progression
30. Figure 10.30 Wide‐open‐throttle torque and power for the engine of Example 10.1
31. Figure 10.31 Road load power of the given vehicle
32. Figure 10.32 Road load power and wheel power in first and top gears of the given vehicle
33. Figure 10.33 Overall road load power and wheel power at the preliminary gear ratios for the given vehicle
34. Figure 10.34 Driveshaft speed, torque, and power during FTP city drive schedule
35. Figure 10.35 Driveshaft speed, torque, and power during FTP highway drive schedule
36. Figure 10.36 Driveshaft torque and power vs. speed during FTP city drive schedule
37. Figure 10.37 Driveshaft torque and power vs. speed during FTP highway drive schedule
38. Figure 10.38 Characteristics of the initially selected electric motor set
39. Figure 10.39 Wheel and road power of the vehicle described in Example 10.2
40. Figure 10.40 Examples of UDDS energy consumption test layouts for CD modes of PHEVs
41. Figure 10.41 Examples of HWFET energy consumption test layouts for CD modes of PHEVs
42. Figure 10.42 Transition cycle, Rcdc, and Rcda definitions in energy consumption tests for PHEVs
43. Figure 10.43 End‐of‐test scenarios in energy consumption tests for PHEVs
44. Figure 10.44 Example of a window sticker for an electric vehicle (EPA, 2011)
45. Figure 10.45 Example of a window sticker for a plug‐in hybrid electric vehicle (EPA, 2011)
46. Figure 10.46 FTP UDDS drive schedule
47. Figure 10.47 SOC depletion of the first phase UDDS run
48. Figure 10.48 Battery usage of the first phase UDDS run
49. Figure 10.49 DC electrical energy consumption of the first phase UDDS run
50. Figure 10.50 SOC depletion of the last three phases of UDDS running
51. Figure 10.51 Battery usage of the last three phases of UDDS running
52. Figure 10.52 DC electrical energy consumption of the last three phases of UDDS running
53. Figure 10.53 HWFET drive schedule
54. Figure 10.54 SOC depletion of the first phase HWFET run
55. Figure 10.55 Battery usage of the first phase HWFET run
56. Figure 10.56 DC electrical energy consumption of the first phase HWFET run
57. Figure 10.57 SOC depletion of the last three phases of HWFET running
58. Figure 10.58 Battery usage of the last three phases of HWFET running
59. Figure 10.59 DC electrical energy consumption of the last three phases of HWFET running
Appendix A
1. Figure A.1 System with input and output
2. Figure A.2 System with disturbance
3. Figure A.3 Examples of noise signals
4. Figure A.4 Continuous and sampled data functions
5. Figure A.5 Input and output of sampler and holder
Appendix B
1. Figure B.1 Open‐loop control system diagram
2. Figure B.2 Closed‐loop control system diagram
3. Figure B.3 Working diagram of the dynamic programming method
4. Figure B.4 Diagram of the optimal LQC feedback control system
5. Figure B.5 Obtained optimal feedback control system
6. Figure B.6 Minimal variance control system diagram
7. Figure B.7 Diagram of self‐tuning control system
8. Figure B.8 Diagram of model reference adaptive control system
9. Figure B.9 Implemented adaptive control system diagram based on the MIT rule
10. Figure B.10 Scheme of model predictive control
11. Figure B.11 Diagram of a hardware redundant control system
12. Figure B.12 Diagram of a software redundant control system

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Modelling, Simulation and Control of Two‐Wheeled Vehicles	Tanelli, Corno and Savaresi	March 2014
Advanced Composite Materials for Automotive Applications: Structural Integrity and Crashworthiness	Elmarakbi	December 2013
Guide to Load Analysis for Durability in Vehicle Engineering	Johannesson	November 2013