reading

Table of Contents

Cover

The DVD accompanying this book presents

Title

Preface

Contributors

Introduction

References

Section I: Defining the Problem

Chapter 1: Tackling the Water Crisis: A Continuing Need to Address Spatial and Social Equity
1. 1.1 Introduction
2. 1.2 Access to Improved Water Supplies
3. References
Chapter 2: Sanitation and Hygiene: Taking Stock After Three Decades
1. 2.1 Introduction
2. 2.2 Background
3. 2.3 Hygiene
4. 2.4 New Approaches for Improving Sanitation and Hygiene
5. 2.5 Sanitation and Hygiene Options
6. 2.6 Financing Sanitation
7. 2.7 Final Remarks
8. References
Chapter 3: Water and Health: The Demographic Background
1. 3.1 Introduction
2. 3.2 Water Scarcity, Health, and Demography
3. 3.3 Population Is Growing Steadily and Will Continue to Do So
4. 3.4 Different Measures of Growth
5. 3.5 Age Structure of the Population and Population Momentum
6. 3.6 Projections of the Future
7. References
Chapter 4: Water and War: Averting Armed Conflict and Protecting Human Rights
1. 4.1 Introduction
2. 4.2 Availability and Accessibility of Water
3. 4.3 Access to Water as a Basic Human Right
4. 4.4 Conflicts Over Water
5. 4.5 Health Consequences of Violent Conflict
6. 4.6 Preventing Armed Conflicts Over Water
7. 4.7 Conclusion
8. References

Section II: Water and Sanitation-Related Diseases

Chapter 5: Infectious Diarrhea
1. 5.1 Introduction
2. 5.2 Epidemiology
3. 5.3 Definition and Physiology
4. 5.4 Manifestations of Infectious Diarrhea
5. 5.5 Etiology of Infectious Diarrhea
6. 5.6 Complications and Management
7. 5.7 Prevention
8. 5.8 Conclusion
9. References
Chapter 6: Malnutrition and Undernutrition
1. 6.1 Introduction
2. 6.2 An Overview of Malnutrition and Undernutrition: Magnitude, Types, and Causation
3. 6.3 Expected Benefits of Clean Water and Sanitation Provision
4. 6.4 Summary
5. References
Chapter 7: Soil-Transmitted Helminths: Ascaris, Trichuris, and Hookworm Infections
1. 7.1 Introduction
2. 7.2 The Organisms
3. 7.3 Epidemiology
4. 7.4 Pathogenesis and Pathology
5. 7.5 Clinical Manifestations
6. 7.6 Diagnosis
7. 7.7 Treatment
8. 7.8 Control and Elimination
9. 7.9 Vaccination
10. 7.10 Conclusions
11. References
Chapter 8: Toxic Cyanobacteria
1. 8.1 Introduction
2. 8.2 Cyanobacterial Toxins (“Cyanotoxins”)
3. 8.3 Chronic Exposure to Cyanotoxins in Drinking Water
4. 8.4 Acute Exposures to Toxic Cyanobacteria
5. 8.5 Dam Building and Problem Cyanobacteria
6. 8.6 Future Problems
7. 8.7 Toxic Cyanobacteria and Safe Drinking Water Supplies
8. 8.8 Concluding Remarks
9. Acknowledgments
10. References
Chapter 9: Dengue: A Water-Borne Disease
1. 9.1 Introduction
2. 9.2 Etiology
3. 9.3 Epidemiology
4. 9.4 Clinical Findings
5. 9.5 Diagnosis
6. 9.6 Treatment
7. 9.7 Pathogenesis
8. 9.8 Prevention
9. References
Chapter 10: Dracunculiasis (Guinea Worm Disease): Case Study of the Effort to Eradicate Guinea Worm
1. 10.1 Introduction
2. 10.2 Implementing the Eradication Campaign
3. 10.2 Impact and Final Challenges
4. References
Chapter 11: Onchocerciasis
1. 11.1 Introduction
2. 11.2 The Parasite, the Vector, and the Related Life Cycles
3. 11.3 Relationships between Parasite, Vector, and the Host Population
4. 11.4 The Disease
5. 11.5 Clinical Symptoms
6. 11.6 Control Measures
7. 11.7 Elimination Programs
8. 11.8 Criteria for Elimination of Transmission of Onchocerciasis
9. 11.9 Guidelines for Elimination
10. 11.10 Challenges
11. 11.11 Conclusion
12. References
Chapter 12: Reassessing Multiple-Intervention Malaria Control Programs of the Past: Lessons for the Design of Contemporary Interventions
1. 12.1 Introduction
2. 12.2 Malaria: The Disease
3. 12.3 Malaria Control
4. 12.4 Malaria and Hydrology
5. 12.5 Discussion
6. 12.6 Conclusion
7. References
Chapter 13: Schistosomiasis
1. 13.1 Introduction
2. 13.2 Schistosomiasis Transmission Cycle
3. 13.3 Epidemiology
4. 13.4 Pathogenesis
5. 13.5 Clinical Manifestations
6. 13.6 Diagnosis
7. 13.7 Social Dynamics Influencing Schistosomiasis Transmission
8. 13.8 Control
9. 13.9 Conclusion
10. References
Chapter 14: Trachoma
1. 14.1 Introduction
2. 14.2 Causative Organism and Natural History
3. 14.3 Clinical Manifestations
4. 14.4 Diagnosis
5. 14.5 Epidemiology
6. 14.6 Trachoma: Water and Sanitation
7. 14.7 Prevention and Control
8. 14.8 The Path Toward Elimination by 2020
9. 14.10 Conclusion
10. 14.A.1 Appendix: Resources Available for Elimination of Trachoma
11. References
Chapter 15: Shigellosis
1. 15.1 Introduction
2. 15.2 Pathogen and Pathogenesis
3. 15.3 Epidemiology
4. 15.4 Clinical Manifestations and Treatment
5. 15.5 Prevention and Control
6. 15.6 Conclusion
7. References
Chapter 16: The Zimbabwe Cholera Epidemic of 2008–2009
1. 16.1 Brief Overview of Cholera
2. 16.2 The Zimbabwe Cholera Epidemic of 2008–2009
3. 16.3 Lessons from the Zimbabwe Cholera Epidemic of 2008–2009
4. References
Chapter 17: Infectious Disease Control in Ghana: Government's Interventions and Challenges to Malaria Eradication
1. 17.1 Introduction
2. 17.2 Ghana Malaria Control Initiatives—Past and Present
3. 17.3 Successes, Challenges, and Weaknesses of Control Strategies
4. 17.4 Conclusion and Recommendations
5. References

Section III: Water Resources

Chapter 18: Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage in Low-Income Countries
1. 18.1 Introduction
2. 18.2 HWTS Methods
3. 18.3 Effectiveness and Cost-Effectiveness of HWTS to Prevent Diarrhea
4. 18.4 Optimizing the Potential of HWTS: Achieving Targeted Coverage and Uptake at Scale
5. 18.5 Conclusion
6. References
Chapter 19: Informal Small-Scale Water Services in Developing Countries: The Business of Water for Those without Formal Municipal Connections
1. 19.1 Introduction
2. 19.2 Access to Improved Water Sources in Urban Areas
3. 19.3 Types of Informal Businesses
4. 19.4 General Characteristics of the Informal Sector
5. 19.5 Consequences and Trends of the Informal Water Sector
6. 19.6 General Views of the Sector
7. 19.7 Concluding Remarks
8. References

Section IV: Sanitation and Hygiene

Chapter 20: The Sanitation Challenge in India
1. 20.1 The Sanitation Challenge in India
Chapter 21: Successful Sanitation Projects in Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore
1. 21.1 Rural Sanitation in Thailand: Persistence and Creativity Pays Off
2. 21.2 Background
3. 21.4 Scaling up Sanitation: The Case of Malaysia
4. 21.7 Singapore: Forward Thinking and Forward Moving
5. References
Chapter 22: Household-Centered Environmental Sanitation Systems
1. 22.1 Introduction
2. 22.2 Sanitation System Components
3. 22.3 Classification of Sanitation Technologies
4. 22.4 Description of Various Household-Centered On-Site Sanitation Systems Presently Being Practiced in Developing Countries
5. 22.5 Ecological Sanitation: Urine Separation, Application, and Disposal
6. 22.6 Sulabh Sanitation Technologies

Section V: Environmental Factors of Water Pollution

Chapter 23: Naturally Occurring Water Pollutants
1. 23.1 Introduction
2. 23.2 Natural Pollutants—Chemicals
3. 23.3 Natural Pollutants—Microbes
4. 23.4 Conclusion
5. References
Chapter 24: Anthropogenic Sources of Water Pollution: Parts 1 and 2
1. 24.1 Microorganisms in Water
2. 24.2 Urban Runoff
3. 24.3 Chemical Pollutants
4. 24.4 Loss of Ecosystem Services
5. 24.5 Dams and Other Structural Disturbances to Ecosystems
6. 24.6 Groundwater Contamination
7. 24.7 Legislation and Regulation of Water Supplies
8. Part 2—Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in the Environment
9. References
Chapter 25: The Hudson River: A Case Study of PCB Contamination
1. 25.1 Introduction
2. 25.2 PCB Contamination Sources of the Upper Hudson
3. 25.3 Conclusions
4. References
Chapter 26: Other Water Pollutants: Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria
1. 26.1 Introduction
2. 26.2 Development of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria
3. 26.3 Types of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria Identified in Wastewater
4. 26.4 Impact of Wastewater Treatment Processes on Antibiotic Resistance
5. 26.5 Summary
6. References

Section VI: Current and Future Trends in Preventing Water Pollution

Chapter 27: Controlling Water Pollutants
1. 27.1 Introduction
2. 27.2 What Is Being Done about Water Pollutants?
3. 27.3 What Can Be Done about Water Pollutants?
4. References
Chapter 28: Global Substitution of Mercury-Based Medical Devices in the Health Sector
1. 28.1 Introduction
2. 28.2 The Problem: Mercury in the Environment
3. 28.3 Mercury in Health Care
4. 28.4 Responses
5. 28.5 Conclusion
6. References
Chapter 29: Addressing Sources of PCBs and Other Chemical Pollutants in Water
1. 29.1 Introduction
2. 29.2 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
3. 29.3 Wastewater and Drinking-Water Treatment
4. 29.4 Policy and Regulation
5. 29.5 Behavioral Change as a Way to Reduce Water Contamination
6. 29.6 Conclusions
7. References
Chapter 30: Additional Measures to Prevent, Ameliorate, and Reduce Water Pollution and Related Water Diseases: Global Water Governance
1. 30.1 Introduction
2. References

Section VII: Emerging Issues in Ecology, Environment, and Disease

Chapter 31: Changing Geographic Distribution of Disease Vectors
1. 31.1 Introduction
2. 31.2 How Vectors Move
3. 31.3 Summary
4. References
Chapter 32: Malaria in the Brazilian Amazon
1. 32.1 Introduction
2. 32.2 Historical Perspective
3. 32.3 Anopheles Vectors in the Amazon
4. 32.4 Agricultural Settlement and Environmental Change
5. 32.5 Frontier Malaria: An Example
6. 32.6 Malaria Prevention and Mitigation: Current and Future Challenges
7. 32.7 Conclusions
8. References
Chapter 33: Ecosystem Services, Water Resource Development, and Human Infectious Disease
1. 33.1 Introduction
2. 33.2 Ecosystems Services and Water Resource Development
3. 33.3 The Service of Disease Regulation
4. 33.4 Water Resources—Management Rather than Development
5. References
Chapter 34: Ocean Pollution: Health and Environmental Impacts of Brominated Flame Retardants
1. 34.1 Introduction
2. 34.2 Chemical and Physical Properties
3. 34.3 PBDE Uses and Regulatory Restrictions
4. 34.4 PBDE Sources, Exposure Pathways, Levels, and Temporal Trends
5. 34.5 Health Effects of PBDEs in Animals and Humans
6. 34.6 The Legacy of PBDEs: Replacement Flame Retardants and PBDE Combustion Products
7. 34.7 Conclusions and Recommendations
8. Acknowledgments
9. References

Section VIII: Conclusion

Chapter 35: Assessment of Progress in Meeting the UN Millennium Development Goals
1. 35.1 Introduction
2. 35.2 UN Millennium Declaration Goal 4: Reducing Child Mortality
3. 35.3 UN Millennium Declaration Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability
4. 35.4 Progress
5. 35.5 Moving Forward
6. 35.6 Conclusion
7. Acknowledgments
8. References
Chapter 36: Extending the Right to Health Care and Improving Child Survival in Mexico
1. 36.1 Introduction
2. 36.2 Child Survival in Mexico: The Diagonal Approach
3. 36.3 Conclusions
4. References
Chapter 37: Using Kinship Structures in Health Programming—An Example of Preventive Measures and Successful Interventions
1. 37.1 Introduction
2. 37.2 The Traditional African Kinship System
3. 37.3 Conclusion
4. References

Colour Plates

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1: Tackling the Water Crisis: A Continuing Need to Address Spatial and Social Equity

Figure 1.1 Young girls collecting water (East Hararghe, Ethiopia). According to the 2005 Ethiopia DHS, only 8% of households report having water on their premises and more than half of the rural population reports taking more than 30 min for collecting drinking water. It was also noted that women and children shoulder the greatest burden for collecting water and spend a disproportionate amount of time hauling water over long distances.
Figure 1.2 Based on current trends, the world is on track to meet the water target of the Millennium Development Goals.
Figure 1.3 Distribution of deaths due to diarrhea in low- and middle-income countries in five WHO regions, 2004 (5).
Figure 1.4 Rainfall variation around the mean and GDP growth in Ethiopia. Ethiopia, suffers from highly variable rainfall, both temporally and spatially, and experiences regular droughts that devastate portions of the country. It is estimated that hydrological variability currently costs the Ethiopian economy, which relies on rainfed subsistence agriculture, over one-third of its growth potential (29).
Figure 1.5 Spending required from 2005 until 2015 to meet water supply component of MDG target 10, excluding project costs (38).
Figure 1.6 Number of people living in urban or rural areas without access to an improved water supply, 2008 (24).
Figure 1.7 Countries represented by the percentage of population using improved drinking water supplies. (See insert for color representation of this figure.)
Figure 1.8 Percentage of population that takes more than 30 min to collect water during one trip (29).
Figure 1.9 Increase in population growth in urban and rural sectors compared to the increase in the population achieving improved water supply coverage worldwide, between 1990 and 2008 (24).
Figure 1.10 Current model of rural water supply interventions (top half) versus the service delivery approach (bottom half) that provides for constant service through ongoing support interspersed with capital projects (29).

Chapter 2: Sanitation and Hygiene: Taking Stock After Three Decades

Figure 2.1 Based on current trends, the world is off track to meet the sanitation target of the MDGs by 1 billion people.
Figure 2.2 Number of people living in urban or rural areas that do not have access to improved sanitation.
Figure 2.3 Ethiopia is making significant advances in ending open defecation and moving people up the sanitation ladder. This latrine (interior, right side) in the Amhara Region does not meet the JMP definition of “improved” sanitation, but represents progress over the still common practice of open defecation. The gourd placed over the pit is used as fly control measure.
Figure 2.4 Proportion of the world's population using an improved, shared, unimproved sanitation facility or practicing open air defecation (2006).
Figure 2.5 Use of improved sanitation facilities by country (2008). (See insert for color representation of this figure.)
Figure 2.6 Regional distribution of the people (in millions) without access to improved sanitation (2008).
Figure 2.7 Number of people engaging in open defecation in urban and rural sectors worldwide (1990–2008). (See insert for color representation of this figure.)
Figure 2.8 Distribution of people (in millions) by country engaging in open defecation.
Figure 2.8 Increase in population growth in urban and rural sectors compared to the increase in the population achieving improved sanitation coverage worldwide between 1990 and 2008.
Figure 2.8 The sanitation marketing framework.
Figure 2.11 Spending required on new and existing sanitation facilities from 2005 until 2015 to meet Millennium Development Goal Target 10, excluding program costs.

Chapter 3: Water and Health: The Demographic Background

Figure 3.1 World population: 1950–2050. Source: U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base, December 2009 update.
Figure 3.2 Annual world population change: 1950–2010.
Figure 3.3 Percent growth rate of world population: 1950–2010.
Figure 3.4 U.S. population: 1950–2050.
Figure 3.5 Exponential growth and decline.
Figure 3.6 Nigeria's total population and age structures, 1975 and 2005.
Figure 3.7 Number of women of childbearing age, worldwide, 1950–2050.
Figure 3.8 Number of women of childbearing age and fertility, worldwide 1950–2050.
Figure 3.9 Numbers of births, worldwide.
Figure 3.10 Projected live births by development status, 2000–2050.
Figure 3.11 China: population 1961–2003.
Figure 3.12 Algeria: population statistics, 1965 and 1985.
Figure 3.13 Momentum as a share of population growth.
Figure 3.14 Contrasting population pyramids, Uganda and Italy.
Figure 3.15 Age structure, more and less developed countries.
Figure 3.16 Share of total population, more and less developed regions.
Figure 3.17 United Nations population projections.

Chapter 5: Infectious Diarrhea

Figure 5.1 Incidence on diarrhea per population. (Adapted from Ref. (1).)
Figure 5.2 Rate of death due to diarrhea age per 100,000 population. (Adapted from Ref. (1).)
Figure 5.3 Mean estimates from studies of global burden of deaths due to diarrhea in children. (Adapted from Refs (1), (2), and (39).)
Figure 5.4 Proportion of children in Demographic Health Surveys reporting an episode of diarrhea in the previous 2 weeks. Line represents 3-year moving average of proportion of children reporting diarrhea. (Adapted from Ref. (186).)

Chapter 6: Malnutrition and Undernutrition

Figure 6.1 Children with protein–calorie malnutrition (kwashiorkor). (Photo courtesy U.S. CDC.)
Figure 6.2 Marasmus (extreme emaciation). (Photo courtesy U.S. CDC.)

Chapter 7: Soil-Transmitted Helminths: Ascaris, Trichuris, and Hookworm Infections

Figure 7.1 Adult A. lumbricoides worm. (Courtesy Division of Parasitic Diseases/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
Figure 7.2 A. lumbricoides egg. (Courtesy Division of Parasitic Diseases/CDC.)
Figure 7.3 T. trichiura adult worm (colonoscopy image). (Courtesy Division of Parasitic Diseases/CDC and Duke University Medical Center.)
Figure 7.4 T. trichiura egg. (Courtesy Division of Parasitic Diseases/CDC.)
Figure 7.5 Hookworm egg. (Courtesy Division of Parasitic Diseases/CDC.)
Figure 7.6 Infective hookworm larva. (Courtesy Division of Parasitic Diseases/CDC.)
Figure 7.7 A. lumbricoides larvae in lung tissue. (Courtesy Division of Parasitic Diseases/CDC.) (See insert for color representation of this figure.)
Figure 7.8 Adult hookworm mouthparts. (a) A. duodenale cutting teeth and (b) N. americanus cutting plates. (Courtesy Division of Parasitic Diseases/CDC.)
Figure 7.9 Hookworm in intestine (video capsule endoscopy image). (Courtesy Dr. Lauren Gerson, Stanford University School of Medicine.) (See insert for color representation of this figure.)
Figure 7.10 Mass drug administration, Central Nigeria. (Photo Dr. Brian Blackburn, Stanford University School of Medicine.)
Figure 7.11 Typical transmission conditions for geohelminths, Central Nigeria. (Photo Dr. Brian Blackburn, Stanford University School of Medicine.)

Chapter 8: Toxic Cyanobacteria

Figure 8.1 Mixed bloom of Anabaena circinalis, Microcystis flos-aquae, and Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii; Murray River upstream of Torrumbarry Weir, New South Wales, Australia. Image courtesy NSW Office of Water. (See insert for color representation of this figure.)
Figure 8.2 Nodularia spumigena; recreational lake, Logan Shire, Queensland, Australia. (See insert for color representation of this figure.)

Chapter 10: Dracunculiasis (Guinea Worm Disease): Case Study of the Effort to Eradicate Guinea Worm

Figure 10.1 Emerging Guinea worm. Savelugu, northern Ghana: Patient with a Guinea worm emerging, at the Savelugu Case Containment Center. (Photo credit: The Carter Center/Louise Gubb.) (See insert for color representation of this figure.)
Figure 10.2 (a) Cloth filter. Savelugu, northern Ghana: Technical assistant Eugene Yeng and a young community-based surveillance volunteer, Abdulhai Idiris. (Photo credit: The Carter Center/Louise Gubb.) (b) Pipe filters. (Photo credit: The Carter Center/Emily Staub.) (See insert for color representation of this figure.)
Figure 10.3 Guinea worm reduction over time. (See insert for color representation of this figure.)
Figure 10.4 Distribution of indigenous 2604 cases of dracunculiasis reported during 2009.

Chapter 11: Onchocerciasis

Figure 11.1 The life cycle of the parasite and its relationship to the human host and vector.
Figure 11.2 The typical changes of early onchocerciasis infection. (See insert for color representation of this figure.)
Figure 11.3 Patches of depigmentation give a classic appearance of “leopard skin” (DPM).
Figure 11.4 The evolution of sclerosing keratits.
Figure 11.5 A patient from Sudan showing typical chronic uveitis with secondary cataract in her right eye and sclerosing keratits in her left eye. (See insert for color representation of this figure.)
Figure 11.6 The geographical distribution of onchocerciasis in Africa and the Arabian Peninsula.
Figure 11.7 The current REMO map seen on the APOC website. http://www.who.int/blindness/partnerships/APOC/en/ (See insert for color representation of this figure.)
Figure 11.8 Health education about onchocerciasis in a Burundi village.
Figure 11.9 Registration of residents in a Burundi village.
Figure 11.10 Dose pole used to estimate the dose of ivermectin based on height.
Figure 11.11 Giving out tablets.
Figure 11.12 Onchocerciasis elimination program in the Americas is limited to small foci in six countries: Mexico, Guatemala, Columbia, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Brazil.
Figure 11.13 Graph of treatment with ivermectin since the beginning of the program in the Americas and the projections into 2015 (47).
Figure 11.14 A schematic representation of the phases in programs for elimination of onchocerciasis transmission, in relation to the theoretical fall-off of the adult worm population and ATP. http://www.who.int/blindness/partnerships/APOC/en/ (See insert for color representation of this figure.)

Chapter 12: Reassessing Multiple-Intervention Malaria Control Programs of the Past: Lessons for the Design of Contemporary Interventions

Figure 12.1 Systemic view of malaria.
Figure 12.2 Poster from the Chinese National Malaria Control Program.

Chapter 13: Schistosomiasis

Figure 13.1 The Transmission Cycle of Schistosomiasis. Courtesy of www.cdc.gov. The numbers in the text correspond to numbers indicated on the drawing. (See insert for color representation of this figure.)

Chapter 14: Trachoma

Figure 14.1 Clinical appearance of trachoma and the WHO trachoma grading scheme. (a) Normal everted upper tarsal conjunctiva; pink, smooth, thin, and transparent. Large deep-lying blood vessels that run vertically are present over the tarsal conjunctiva. The dotted line shows the area to be examined. (b) Trachomatous inflammation-follicular (TF). Five or more follicles of >0.5 mm. (c) Trachomatous inflammation-follicular and intense (TF + TI). Inflammatory thickening obscuring >1/2 the normal deep tarsal vessels. (d) Trachomatous scarring (TS). (e) Trachomatous trichiasis (TT). (f) Corneal opacity (CO). These photographs are reproduced with permission from the WHO Programme for the Prevention of Blindness and Deafness. (See insert for color representation of this figure.)
Figure 14.2 Interaction of risk factors for trachoma. Lancet reproduced with permission (6).
Figure 14.3 Schematic presentation of trachoma infection and disease based on community control programs in Ethiopia (courtesy of Dr. Bruce Gaynor, University of California San Francisco).
Figure 14.4 The mean prevalence of infection (black) and the prevalence in each of the individual 16 study villages (gray) in Ethiopia based on estimates of the prevalence of infection in 1–5 year-old children at a single village visit. After the fourth treatment at 18 months after the study began, infection returned to the 16 villages as shown (30).

Chapter 15: Shigellosis

Figure 15.1 Geographic distribution of Shigella by species and serotype.
Figure 15.2 Characteristic dysenteric stool of a patient with shigellosis, containing blood, mucus, and small amounts of fecal matter. (See insert for color representation of this figure.)
Figure 15.3 (a) Children playing in pond outside their village in Bangladesh. (b) Mother washing dishes in pond where children were playing, and possibly defecating. Defecating in water used for recreation has been an increasingly frequent cause of Shigella transmission in the United States. It is exacerbated in developing countries by using the same water for cooking and cleaning purposes.
Figure 15.4 Advertisement for soap in Bangladesh, which appeals to its cosmetic, rather than its hygienic, properties.

Chapter 16: The Zimbabwe Cholera Epidemic of 2008–2009

Figure 16.1 An distant view of the city of Mutare. This gives an idea of the city size and the kind of terrain typical of eastern Zimbabwe (Photo: E. Dodge.)

Chapter 17: Infectious Disease Control in Ghana: Government's Interventions and Challenges to Malaria Eradication

Figure 17.1 Proportion of annual outpatient visitations due to malaria, 2000–2007.

Chapter 19: Informal Small-Scale Water Services in Developing Countries: The Business of Water for Those without Formal Municipal Connections

Figure 19.1 Percent of households with direct access to piped water in sub-Saharan African cities. Households without tap connections use water from a variety of sources, including informal water providers, traditional sources (e.g., rivers or ponds, though these are often very polluted and inaccessible in large urban zones), or a combination of these. The graph is adapted from a table published by Kariuki and Schwartz (2).
Figure 19.2 Approximate contribution of different water sources to household water supply in Kisumu. Water collected by households directly from traditional sources (e.g., rivers) is not included in the total presented above. Data was collected by the authors based on interviews with vendors representative of every informal water industry in Kisumu, as well as members of the municipal utility.

Chapter 20: The Sanitation Challenge in India

Figure 20.1 Scavenger women set out in the morning with broom and pan to clean bucket toilets.
Figure 20.2 An untouchable human scavenger taking out human excreta manually from a bucket toilet to carry as a head load for its further disposal.
Figure 20.3 A life of degradation, humiliation, and discrimination in store for the new bride of a scavenger family.
Figure 20.4 No help was extended to the boy, attacked by a bull, as he was an untouchable.
Figure 20.5 Dr. Pathak with colleagues during the Bihar Gandhi Birth Celebration.
Figure 20.6 Bhangi Mukti Andolan—Liberation of Scavengers program being discussed by Dr. Pathak with a group of people in Patna.
Figure 20.7 Sulabh International's Museum of Toilets.
Figure 20.8 One of the many Sulabh Toilets spread all across India. Details about the Sulabh International sanitation systems are in Chapter 22, “Household Centered Environmental Sanitation Systems,” also by author Bindeshwar Pathak, and in the book's DVD.

Chapter 21: Successful Sanitation Projects in Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore

Figure 21.1 Kingdom of Thailand snapshot.
Figure 21.2 Deaths in Thailand due to diarrheal diseases.
Figure 21.3 Events in Thailand's rural sanitation history.
Figure 21.4 Malaysia snapshot.
Figure 21.5 Gastrointestinal disease patterns in Malaysia, 1980–2006.
Figure 21.6 Singapore snapshot.
Figure 21.7 Graph based on census data and PUB presentation (2009).

Chapter 22: Household-Centered Environmental Sanitation Systems

Figure 22.1 The Sulabh twin-pit, pour-flush, compost toilet—a simple solution to achieve the Millennium Development Goal on Sanitation.
Figure 22.2 Front and side view of the Sulabh Toilet Complex at Kothi compound, Rewa, Madhya Pradesh (constructed during 2006–2007).
Figure 22.3 Biogas digester, underground, below the flower bed, connected to Sulabh public toilet complex.
Figure 22.4 Food being cooked on a biogas burner.
Figure 22.5 A mantle lamp lit by biogas in a Sulabh complex.
Figure 22.6 Power generation from biogas with an engine operated by a battery for spark ignition.
Figure 22.7 Power generated from biogas is used for street lighting.
Figure 22.8 (a) Treatment of waste water of human excreta-based biogas digester through Sulabh Effluent Treatment (SET) technology. (b) Diagrammatic representation of the SET technology.
Figure 22.9 Duckweed-based waste water treatment.
Figure 22.10 Duckweed-based pisciculture.
Figure 22.11 Sulabh Thermophilic Aerobic Composting (STAC) Technology.

Chapter 23: Naturally Occurring Water Pollutants

Figure 23.1 (a) A mysterious sea foam washed up along the coast of Ocean Shores, Washington in the fall of 2009. The photos taken at Chance A La Mer State Park following a violent coastal storm (11/2009) show the foam responsible for the death of thousands of seabirds between September and November (b). Experts believe a toxic algae, Akashiwo sanguinea, is responsible for removing the natural oil and waterproofing from the feathers of the seabirds, rendering them unable to protect themselves from the elements. (Photographs courtesy of Julie Hollenbeck.) (See insert for color representation of this figure.)

Chapter 25: The Hudson River: A Case Study of PCB Contamination

Figure 25.1 Map of the Upper Hudson River.
Figure 25.2 Structure of the PCB molecule. There are 10 positions around the biphenyl rings that may have hydrogen or chlorides. These positions are traditionally numbered from 2 to 6 on one ring and 2' to 6' on the other. The 2 and 6 positions are identified as “ ortho,” the 3 and 5 positions as “meta,” and the 4 position as “para.”
Figure 25.3 Congener patterns in pure Aroclor 1242 (top, in ng/g) and in the vapor phase after air was blown over the parent mixture (bottom, in ng/m³). The degree of chlorination increases from left to right. Congener numbers are given above the bars. Unpublished data from Ann Casey, with thanks to Dr. Zafar Aminov.

Chapter 26: Other Water Pollutants: Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria

Figure 26.1 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria and their resistance genes enter raw wastewater from both point and nonpoint sources.
Figure 26.2 Estimates of antibiotic use in the United States by the Animal Health Institute (AHI) and the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) (UCS did not estimate therapeutic animal use).
Figure 26.3 Antibiotic selective pressures acting on a bacterial population. Bacterial populations are naturally comprised of antibiotic-sensitive bacteria, as well as a few antibiotic-resistant microorganisms that carry either a mutation or a resistance gene. When an antibiotic selective pressure is applied, the majority of the sensitive bacteria are killed or inhibited and the resistant bacteria are selected. These resistant microorganisms then flourish and reproduce, creating future generations of antibiotic-resistant bacterial populations.

Chapter 29: Addressing Sources of PCBs and Other Chemical Pollutants in Water

Figure 29.1 Scatter-plot matrix for the content of pairs of 10 contaminants and total pesticides measured in salmon samples from various locations where the salmon were produced or purchased. HEP_EPO, heptachlor; T_CHLOR, total chlordane; T_DDT, total DDT; T_PEST, total pesticide. From Ref. (8). Reproduced with permission.
Figure 29.2 Number of contaminants regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act, by contaminant type (from EPA).

Chapter 31: Changing Geographic Distribution of Disease Vectors

Figure 31.1 Map of the Americas showing distribution of Ae. aegypti during three different years.
Figure 31.2 Map showing countries with dengue and limits for year-round survival of Ae. aegypti (WHO).
Figure 31.3 Photo of Salvador and water tanks in slum areas, by Felix Lam.
Figure 31.4 Map: current distribution of Ae. albopictus in Europe (map 1 in annex of ECDC technical report 2009) Available at: http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/activities/pages/programme_on_emerging_and_vector-borne_diseases_maps.aspx.

Chapter 32: Malaria in the Brazilian Amazon

Figure 32.1 Major administrative divisions of Brazil (regions and states) and the location of the Brazilian Amazon.
Figure 32.2 Number of malaria cases reported in Brazil and in the Amazon region, 1965–2009.
Figure 32.3 Anophelines found in Brazil. Deane (112).
Figure 32.4 Location and design of the Machadinho settlement project. (a) Area with pasture. (b) Area with diversified crop production and patches of original forest. (c) Aerial view of the main urban center. (d) Machadinho River. (e) Laboratory where blood slides are prepared and analyzed. (f, g) Satellite images taken in 1985 and 1995, respectively (Landsat TM, 30 m of resolution). (See insert for color representation of this figure.)

Chapter 33: Ecosystem Services, Water Resource Development, and Human Infectious Disease

Figure 33.1 Ecosystem services. Bolded services are specifically addressed in this
Figure 33.2 Estimated global value of ecosystem services expressed as percentage of the aggregated value of all global ecosystems (annual mean of USD33 trillion). Columns: Black indicates water-related services; Grey indicates services that are only partly water-related; Blank columns indicate services not related to water. (Data from Ref. (15).)
Figure 33.3 The linkages between ecosystem services, human well-being, and their direct and indirect drivers, in the context of water and health. Rectangles are states and trends, circles are drivers of states and trends. (After Ref. (1).)
Figure 33.4 Comparing drylands to nondrylands: precipitation, biological productivity and human population growth. (Adapted from Ref. (1).)
Figure 33.5 Measures of human well-being in the drylands in relation to mean annual precipitation, compared to those of other ecosystems. (Adapted from Ref. (1).)
Figure 33.6 Drivers and impacts of water resource development in drylands and nondrylands.
Figure 33.7 Drivers of ecosystem change and transformation through water resource development. Black arrows show movement of water.
Figure 33.8 Ecosystem transformation at the global scale. Columns: areas in million sq. km. Curve: proportion transformed of each ecosystem type. Arrows indicate the flow of water from the freshwater ecosystems (in the “inland water” category) to other ecosystems. (Adapted from Ref. (1).)
Figure 33.9 Interlinkages and mutually reinforcing processes of desertification, biodiversity loss and climate change, driven by water resource development. (Adapted from Ref. (24).)
Figure 33.10 Ecosystem and biodiversity components involved in the provision of disease regulation service. Dashed arrows show routes of pathogen organism to human host. Solid arrows show interactions, gray text refers to the pathogen.
Figure 33.11 Ecosystem change and human infectious diseases.

Chapter 34: Ocean Pollution: Health and Environmental Impacts of Brominated Flame Retardants

Figure 34.1 Seals and other marine top predators carry high loads of persistent organic chemicals that migrate from land to the sea. Photograph courtesy of Bowman Gray.
Figure 34.2 Chemical structures of PBDEs, PCBs, PBBs, PCDDs, and thyroid hormones (thyroxine, T₄).
Figure 34.3 (a) Seal eating fish. Photograph by John Fuller. (b) School of fish. Photograph courtesy of MERI.
Figure 34.4 Harbor seal mother and pup. Photograph by Cynthia Stroud.
Figure 34.5 Harbor seals on ledge. Photograph by Cynthia Shroud.
Figure 34.6 PBDE concentrations have been increasing in North American wildlife and human tissues over the past 30 years. Trend lines show average PBDE concentrations reported for the first and last year of the studies. References: Dungeness crab (Ref. 107); whitefish (Ref. 108); bull shark (Ref. 109); cormorant (Ref. 110); great blue heron (Ref. 110); beluga whale (Ref. 111); bottlenose dolphin (Ref. 109); harbor seal—San Francisco Bay, CA (Ref. 73); harbor seal—British Columbia, Canada (Ref. 112); harbor seal—NW Atlantic United States (Ref. 104); humans—United States (Ref. 80). (See insert for color representation of this figure.)
Figure 34.7 Human infants and seal pups are exposed to large quantities of toxic organic chemicals through mother's milk. Photo credit: MERI.
Figure 34.8 Marine mammal die-offs are increasingly common—and most are linked with immunotoxic pollutants that diminish immune resilience to disease. Danish researchers discovered dead harbor seals on Anholt Island beach during an epidemic that decimated European seals in 2007. Photograph by Theo Harkonen.
Figure 34.9 Harbor seals on Maine ledge. Photograph by Bowman Gray.

Chapter 35: Assessment of Progress in Meeting the UN Millennium Development Goals

Figure 35.1 Pathways linking water, sanitation, and hygiene with human health. (Adapted from Ref. (31).)
Figure 35.2 Regional distribution of children who died before they reached their fifth birthday in 2008. CEE/CIS: Central and Eastern Europe/Commonwealth of Independent States. (Adapted from Ref. (10).)
Figure 35.3 Global map of drinking-water coverage in 2008.
Figure 35.4 Proportion of global population lacking improved water in 2008.
Figure 35.5 Global map of proportion of population using improved sanitation in 2008.
Figure 35.6 Distribution of global population practicing open defecation in 2008.
Figure 35.7 F-diagram.

Chapter 36: Extending the Right to Health Care and Improving Child Survival in Mexico

Figure 36.1 Evolution of under-5 mortality rate in Mexico, 1990–2010.

List of Tables

Chapter 1: Tackling the Water Crisis: A Continuing Need to Address Spatial and Social Equity

Table 1.1 Countries Accounting for Three-Quarters of Diarrheal Deaths, 2004 (5).
Table 1.2 Numbers of People Who Received Improved Water Supplies (1981–2000).
Table 1.3 Level of Water Supply Service and Related Potential Hygiene and Health Effects.
Table 1.4 Seven Characteristics of the Service Delivery Approach.

Chapter 2: Sanitation and Hygiene: Taking Stock After Three Decades

Table 2.1 Numbers of People Who Received Improved Sanitation per Day (1981–2000) (4).
Table 2.2 Median Reductions in Diarrhea Morbidity Resulting from Sanitation and Hygiene Interventions.
Table 2.3 Estimates of Cost-Effectiveness Ratios for Various Interventions Targeting Diarrheal Disease (23).
Table 2.4 Cost Estimates of Various Sanitation Alternatives per Household (34).

Chapter 4: Water and War: Averting Armed Conflict and Protecting Human Rights

Table 4.1 Annual Per Capita Water Availability in Selected Countries of Africa and the Middle East.
Table 4.2 Population Growth Rate, 1998–2050, Selected Countries.
Table 4.3 Water Conflicts, 1900–2007.

Chapter 5: Infectious Diarrhea

Table 5.1 Morbidity and Mortality Associated with Diarrheal Disease Stratified by Age Group.
Table 5.2 Morbidity and Mortality Associated with Diarrheal Disease Stratified by Income Group.
Table 5.3 Etiology of Infectious Diarrhea.
Table 5.4 Treatment and Prevention Strategies for Acute Diarrhea Aimed at Developing Countries.
Table 5.5 Summary of Treatment Based on Degree of Dehydration.
Table 5.6 Antimicrobial Recommendations for Infectious Diarrhea Caused by Specific Pathogens.

Chapter 6: Malnutrition and Undernutrition

Table 6.1 Water Quantity Provision, Access to Water, Health Needs Met, and Level of Health Risk.
Table 6.2 Anemia.
Table 6.3 Relative Risk of Mortality Associated with Low WAZ Estimated from Regression Analysis by Cause of Death.

Chapter 7: Soil-Transmitted Helminths: Ascaris, Trichuris, and Hookworm Infections

Table 7.1 Epidemiologic, Parasitologic, and Clinical Characteristic of the Soil-Transmitted Helminths.

Chapter 11: Onchocerciasis

Table 11.1 Global Estimates of the Population at Risk, Infected and Blind from Onchocercisis in 1995 (1).

Chapter 12: Reassessing Multiple-Intervention Malaria Control Programs of the Past: Lessons for the Design of Contemporary Interventions

Table 12.1 Types of Control Interventions.
Table 12.2 Performance-Based Ratings of Malaria Control Programs According to Potential Problems Associated with Different Types of Interventions.

Chapter 13: Schistosomiasis

Table 13.1 Classification of Control Strategies.

Chapter 15: Shigellosis

Table 15.1 Current Options for the Treatment of Shigella Infections.
Table 15.2 Options for Prevention of Shigellosis.

Chapter 18: Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage in Low-Income Countries

Table 18.1 Pooled Estimate of Risk (and Number of Studies) of Systematic Reviews of Water Supply and Water Quality Interventions to Prevent Diarrheal Disease.

Chapter 21: Successful Sanitation Projects in Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore

Table 21.1 Change in the Population Served by Indah Water Konsortium (IWK) with Various Types of Sanitation Systems (2000–2008).

Chapter 23: Naturally Occurring Water Pollutants

Table 23.1 Inorganic Contaminants, Human Health Benchmark, and Possible Health Effects Associated with Exposure Above the Benchmark.
Table 23.2 Algal Toxins, Responsible Organisms, and Health Effects from Water-Borne Exposures.
Table 23.3 Identified and Probable Organisms (Bacteria, Viruses, Yeasts, Fungi, Parasites) Present in Water that can Cause Adverse Human or Ecologic Health Impacts.

Chapter 25: The Hudson River: A Case Study of PCB Contamination

Table 25.1 Comparison of ROD Estimates and Current Design Targets by River Section.
Table 25.2 U.S. EPA Upper 2000 Point Estimate Cancer Risk Summary—Upper Hudson (43).
Table 25.3 U.S. EPA Upper 2000 Point Estimate Cancer Risk Summary—Mid Hudson (43).
Table 25.4 U.S. EPA Upper 2000 Point Estimate Noncancer Hazard Summary—Upper Hudson (43).
Table 25.5 U.S. EPA Upper 2000 Point Estimate Noncancer Hazard Summary—Mid Hudson (43)^b.

Chapter 26: Other Water Pollutants: Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria

Table 26.1 Examples of Antibiotic Resistance Mechanisms.
Table 26.2 Examples of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria Recovered from Untreated (Raw) and Treated Wastewater.

Chapter 27: Controlling Water Pollutants

Table 27.1 Substances Classified as Hazardous (Candidates for Ban or Phase Out) Under the EU Water Framework Directive and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.

Chapter 28: Global Substitution of Mercury-Based Medical Devices in the Health Sector

Table 28.1 Monthly Mercury Thermometer Breakage at Federico Gomez Children's Hospital, Mexico City, Prior to Substitution with Alternatives.
Table 28.2 Total Consumption of Mercury in Thermometer and Sphygmomanometer Production in China 2003–2005 and Production and Export of Mercury-Containing Thermometers from China 2003–2005.

Chapter 29: Addressing Sources of PCBs and Other Chemical Pollutants in Water

Table 29.1 Health Effects of the Major POPs.
Table 29.2 Inventory of Sources of Dioxin in the United States, May 2000 (from EPA).

Chapter 31: Changing Geographic Distribution of Disease Vectors

Table 31.1 Most Common Human Vector-Borne Infections by Vector.

Chapter 33: Ecosystem Services, Water Resource Development, and Human Infectious Disease

Table 33.1 Valuation of Freshwater Ecosystems in Relation to Valuation of All Terrestrial, Nonmarine Global Ecosystems (Including the Freshwater Ecosystems).

Chapter 34: Ocean Pollution: Health and Environmental Impacts of Brominated Flame Retardants

Table 34.1 PBDE Concentrations (Mean and Range, ng/g Lipid Weight) in Human Tissues (General Population).
Table 34.2 PBDE Concentrations (Mean and Range, ng/g Lipid Weight) in People from High Exposure Regions.

Chapter 35: Assessment of Progress in Meeting the UN Millennium Development Goals

Table 35.1 Millennium Development Goals (1).
Table 35.2 Targets and Indicators for MDGs 4 and 7.
Table 35.3 Influence of Water and Sanitation on all Eight Millennium Development Goals.
Table 35.4 Distribution of Total Annual Spending to Meet MDG for Water and Sanitation (13).

Chapter 36: Extending the Right to Health Care and Improving Child Survival in Mexico

Table 36.1 Changes in Access to Sanitation Facilities and Drinking Water Sources, Mexico 1990–2008.

The DVD accompanying this book presents:

16 videos and 4 short-clip videos, totaling nearly 4 hours of supplemental content
525 illustrations, tables, and maps from the text.
Additional text content not found in the book

Updates and additional resources will be posted on a companion website: www.wiley.com/go/selendy/water

VIDEOS

Chapter 10 Dracunculiasis (Guinea Worm Disease): Case Study Of The Effort To Reduce Guinea Worm

Dracunculiasis (Guinea Worm Disease): Case Study Of The Effort To Reduce Guinea Worm
1. The Carter Center
Guinea Worm's Last Stand: Southern Sudan
1. Cielo Productions, Courtesy of The Carter Center

Chapter 11 Onchocerciasis

Onchocerciasis
The Crab and the Fly: River Blindness (Onchocerciasis)
1. Courtesy of The Carter Center

Chapter 13 Schistosomiasis

Schistosomiasis
1. The Carter Center
Kill or Cure: Bilharzia
1. Rockhopper TV, Courtesy of the Schistosomiasis Control Initiative (SCI)

Chapter 14 Trachoma

Trachoma Control Program
1. The Carter Center

Chapter 16 The Zimbabwe Cholera Epidemic of 2008–2009

Finding the Link between Cholera and coastal fresh water
1. Courtesy of CSIR Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
An interview with Dr. Rita Colwell: Water Quality is Crucial to Human Health and Security
1. Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)

Chapter 18 Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage in Low-Income Countries

Saving Lives with Safe Water: Household Treatment and Safe Storage
1. Courtesy of UNICEF and Population Services International (PSI)

Chapter 20 The Sanitation Challenge in India

Sulabh Freedom: A film dedicated to the UN for Declaring the Year 2008 as International Year of Sanitation Movement: Gandhi lives
1. Sulabh International Social Service Organization

Chapter 22 Household-Centered Environmental Sanitation Systems

Perfect Technology
1. Sulabh International Social Service Organization

Chapter 28 Global Substitution of Mercury-Based Medical Devices in the Health Sector

Uncommon Heroes: Health Care Without Harm
1. Produced by the Skroll Foundation Courtesy of Health Care Without Harm
Vapores de Mecurio
1. Courtesy of Dave Heinien, Safety and Health Coordinator Environmental Health and Safety, Bowling Green State University
Mercury is Hazardous to Health
1. Produced by Toxic Links Courtesy of Health Care Without Harm

Chapter 30 Additional Measures to Prevent, Ameliorate, and Reduce Water Pollution and Related Water Diseases: Global Water Governance

UNICEF: World Water Day Video
1. Producer: Rachel Bonham-Carter

SHORT-CLIP VIDEOS

Chapter 34 Ocean Pollution: Health and Environmental Impacts of Brominated Flame Retardants

Newborn Humpback Calf
Gray Seal Underwater
Harbor Release
Harbor Seal Mother and Pup Swimming and Coming Ashore
1. All Courtesy of Scott Tucker of Expedition New England

VIDEOS

SHORT-CLIP VIDEOS

WATER AND SANITATION-RELATED DISEASES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Challenges, Interventions, and Preventive Measures