Cover
Preface
Acknowledgments
Acronyms
Glossary
About the Companion Website
To the Instructor
To the Student
To the Environmental Professional
How to Use the Book with Fate® and Associated Software
Instructor/Student Resources
Part I: Introduction
1. 1 Sources and Types of Pollutants, Why We Need Modeling, and the Need to Study Historical Pollution Events
  1. 1.1 Introduction
  2. 1.2 Need for Modeling of Pollutants in Environmental Media
  3. 1.3 Pollution versus Contamination; Pollutant versus Contaminant
  4. 1.4 Pollution Classifications
  5. 1.5 Sources of Pollution
  6. 1.6 Historic Examples of Where Fate and Transport Modeling Are Useful
  7. 1.7 Environmental Laws
  8. Concepts
  9. Exercises
  10. Bibliography
Part II: Chemistry of Fate and Transport Modeling
1. 2 Basic Chemical Processes in Pollutant Fate and Transport Modeling
  1. 2.1 The Liquid Medium: Water and the Water Cycle
  2. 2.2 Unique Properties of Water
  3. 2.3 Concentration Units
  4. 2.4 Chemical Aspects of Environmental Systems
  5. 2.5 Reactions and Equilibrium
  6. 2.6 Complexation
  7. 2.7 Equilibrium Sorption Phenomena
  8. 2.8 Transformation/Degradation Reactions
  9. 2.9 Fugacity Concepts and Modeling
  10. 2.10 Summary
  11. Concepts
  12. Exercises
  13. References
2. 3 Quantitative Aspects of Chemistry Toward Modeling
  1. 3.1 Introduction
  2. 3.2 Calculation of the Free Metal Ion Concentration in Natural Waters
  3. 3.3 Methods for Determining K_d and K_p
  4. 3.4 Kinetics of the Sorption Process
  5. 3.5 Sorption Isotherms
  6. 3.6 Kinetics of Transformation Reactions
  7. 3.7 Numerical Chemical Speciation Models
  8. 3.8 Putting It All Together: Where Chemistry Enters Into the Modeling Effort
  9. 3.9 Basic Approach to Fate and Transport Modeling
  10. Exercises
  11. Bibliography
Part III: Modeling
1. 4 An Overview of Pollutant Fate and Transport Modeling
  1. 4.1 Modeling Approaches
  2. 4.2 Quality of Modeling Results
  3. 4.3 What Do You Do with Your Modeling Results?
  4. Bibliography
2. 5 Fate and Transport Concepts for Lake Systems
  1. Case Study 1: Lake Onondaga
  2. Case Study 2: Lake Erie, A More Positive Example
  3. Chapter Overview
  4. 5.1 Introduction
  5. 5.2 Types of Lakes and Lake‐forming Events
  6. 5.3 Input Sources
  7. 5.4 Stratification of Lake Systems
  8. 5.5 Environmental Sampling of Lake Systems
  9. 5.6 Important Factors in the Modeling of Lakes: Conceptual Model Development
  10. 5.7 Two Basic Mathematical Models for Lakes (Derivation by John Brooksbank in the Chapter Appendix)
  11. 5.8 Sensitivity Analysis
  12. 5.9 Limitations of Our Models
  13. 5.10 Remediation
  14. 5.11 Numerical Modeling Approaches for Large Lakes
  15. 5.12 Useful Algebraic Model Formulation
  16. Appendix Derivation of the two basic forms of fate and transport models for lake system: step (continuous) model and pulse (instantaneous) (derivations by John Brooksbank)
  17. Concepts
  18. Exercises
  19. Bibliography
3. 6 Fate and Transport of Pollutants in Rivers and Streams
  1. Case Study: The Rhine River
  2. 6.1 Introduction
  3. 6.2 Examples of Rivers and Volumetric Flows of Water
  4. 6.3 Input Sources
  5. 6.4 Sampling of Surface Waters
  6. 6.5 Important Factors in the Modeling of Streams: Conceptualization of Terms
  7. 6.6 Mathematical Development of Transport Models (Derivations by John Brooksbank, Here and in Chapter Appendix)
  8. 6.7 Sensitivity Analysis
  9. 6.8 Limitations of Our Models
  10. 6.9 Remediation of Polluted Stream Systems
  11. Suggested Papers for Class Discussion
  12. Concepts
  13. Exercises
  14. Spreadsheet Exercise
  15. 6.A Appendix Model Derivations for River and Stream Systems (Derivations by John Brooksbank)
  16. Bibliography
4. 7 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curves in Streams: The Streeter–Phelps Equation
  1. Case Study: Any Stream, Anywhere in the World
  2. 7.1 Introduction
  3. 7.2 Basic Input Sources (Wastewater Flow Rates and BOD Levels)
  4. 7.3 Sampling of Wastewater
  5. 7.4 Mass Balance‐Based Development of the Basic Streeter–Phelps Model
  6. 7.5 Sensitivity Analysis
  7. 7.6 Limitations of Our Basic Model and More Elaborate Models
  8. 7.7 Remediation
  9. 7.8 One Last Note on Estuaries
  10. Suggested Reading for Discussion
  11. Concepts
  12. Exercises
  13. Spreadsheet Exercise
  14. 7.A Appendix Derivation of the Streeter–Phelps (DO Sag Curve) Equation (By John Brooksbank)
  15. Bibliography
5. 8 Fate and Transport Concepts for Groundwater Systems
  1. Case Study: The Test Area North Deep Well Injection Site at the Idaho National Environmental and Engineering Laboratory (INEEL)
  2. 8.1 Introduction
  3. 8.2 Input Sources
  4. 8.3 Monitoring Wells
  5. 8.4 Groundwater Sampling Equipment
  6. 8.5 Chemistry Experiments Used to Support Modeling Efforts
  7. 8.6 Direction of Water Flow (The Three‐Point Problem)
  8. 8.7 Physical Parameters Important in Pollutant Fate and Transport
  9. 8.8 Derivation of Mathematical Models for Groundwater
  10. 8.9 Sensitivity Analysis
  11. 8.10 Limitations of Our Models
  12. 8.11 Remediation
  13. 8.12 Numerical Models Used by Professionals
  14. Suggested Papers for Class Discussion
  15. Concepts
  16. Exercises
  17. Spreadsheet Exercise
  18. Bibliography
6. 9 Fate and Transport Concepts Atmospheric Systems
  1. 9.1 Introduction
  2. 9.2 Input Sources
  3. 9.3 Atmospheric Sampling Equipment and Efforts
  4. 9.4 Important Factors in the Modeling of Atmospheric Pollution: Conceptual Model Development
  5. 9.5 Mathematical Development of Model
  6. 9.6 Sensitivity Analysis
  7. 9.7 Limitations of Our Model
  8. 9.8 Remediation
  9. 9.9 Models Used by Professionals
  10. Concepts
  11. Suggested Reading for Class Discussions
  12. Exercises
  13. Plume (step or continuous) Input Problems
  14. Puff (Pulse or Instantaneous) Pollutant Inputs
  15. Spreadsheet Exercise
  16. Bibliography
7. 10 Regulatory Environmental Modeling Practices and Software
  1. 10.1 Introduction
  2. 10.2 Generic Model Types
  3. 10.3 Model Availability
  4. 10.4 Atmospheric Quality Models
  5. 10.5 Surface Water Models
  6. 10.6 Large‐Scale Watershed Models
  7. 10.7 Subsurface or Groundwater Models
  8. 10.8 Modeling of Toxic Substances
  9. 10.9 Human Health Risk Assessment
  10. 10.10 Other Useful Regulatory Models
  11. Exercises
  12. Bibliography
Part IV: Toxicology and Risk Assessment
1. 11 Toxicology, Risk Assessment, Cost–Benefit Analysis, and Life Cycle Assessment
  1. 11.1 Introduction
  2. 11.2 Toxicology
  3. 11.3 Risk Assessment
  4. 11.4 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
  5. 11.5 Benefit–Cost Analysis
  6. 11.6 Summary
  7. Concepts
  8. Exercises
  9. Bibliography
Part V: Environmental Legislation in the United States
1. 12 US Environmental Laws
  1. 12.1 Environmental Movements in the United States
  2. 12.2 The History of the Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA)
  3. 12.3 Major US Environmental Laws
  4. 12.4 EPA's Record
  5. 12.5 Environmental Permitting and Compliance
  6. 12.6 International Agreements/Treaties Involving the United States
  7. 12.7 Summary
  8. Exercises
  9. Disclaimer
  10. Bibliography
2. 13 Environmental Policy in the European Union
  1. 13.1 Introduction to the European Union
  2. 13.2 The Environment and the European Union
  3. 13.3 The Early Stages of the EU's Environmental Efforts
  4. 13.4 Existing Environmental Legislation
  5. 13.5 Waste Management Legislation
  6. 13.6 Water Legislation
  7. 13.7 Air Quality Legislation
  8. 13.8 Environmental Disasters
  9. Bibliography
3. 14 Environmental Laws in China
  1. 14.1 Environmental Law and Policy in the People's Republic of China
  2. 14.2 Brief Introduction to China
  3. 14.3 Economy and the Environment
  4. 14.4 History of Environmental Law and Policy
  5. 14.5 Existing Environmental Law and Policy
  6. 14.6 Challenges and the Future of Environmental Governance
  7. 14.7 Can China Take on the Leading Role in the Global Environmental Governance?
  8. Bibliography
Part VI: World Class Pollutants
1. 15 World Class Pollutants
  1. 15.1 Mercury
  2. 15.2 Lead
  3. 15.3 PCBs
  4. 15.4 DDT
  5. 15.5 Endocrine Disruptors
  6. 15.6 Plastics
  7. 15.7 Carbon Dioxide and Climate Change
  8. Bibliography
Part VII: Supporting Laboratory Experiments
1. 16 Laboratory Experiments
  1. 16.1 Introduction
  2. 16.2 Keeping a Legally Defensible Laboratory Notebook
  3. 16.3 Quarter‐ and Semester‐Long Experiments
  4. 16.4 Pollutant Fate and Transport Experiments for the Last Two Dispersion Experiments
  5. 16.5 The Measurement of Dispersion in a Simulated River System
  6. 16.6 The Measurement of Dispersion and Sorption in a Simulated Groundwater System
  7. Bibliography
Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1
1. Table 1.1 Potential sources of chemical emissions (point and nonpoint sources).
2. Table 1.3 Number of hazardous waste generators and amount of waste produced by t...
3. Table 1.2 Total hazardous waste generated in year 2000 by the Parties to the Bas...
4. Table 1.4 Top hazardous waste generators in the United States (greater than 10 0...
Chapter 2
1. Table 2.1 The global water budget by region (Food and Agriculture Organization o...
2. Table 2.2 Unique properties of water.
3. Table 2.3 Estimation of ion strength based on salt composition.
4. Table 2.4 Activity coefficients and hydrated radii for aqueous solutions at 25 °...
5. Table 2.5 Bioconcentration of DDT in Long Island Food Web (USA).
6. Table 2.6 Summary of aqueous solubility, vapor pressure, and Henry's law constan...
7. Table 2.7 Selected solubility products for inorganic compounds at 25 °C (Weast a...
8. Table 2.8 A summary of important equilibrium constants used in environmental che...
9. Table 2.9 Properties of representative clay minerals from each main group.
10. Table 2.10 Functional groups observed in different NOM molecules.
11. Table 2.11 Abiotic reactions.
12. Table 2.12 Relationship between bond energy and minimum wavelength of light requ...
13. Table 2.13 Properties of common forms of radiation.
Chapter 3
1. Table 3.1 Stability constants (logK or β) for the formation of complexes an...
2. Table 3.2 Experimental data for the determination of a distribution coefficient ...
3. Table 3.3 A summary of desorption modeling equations and justification for sedim...
4. Table 3.4 A summary of chemical factors affecting fate and transport for each ca...
5. Table 3.5 Factors affecting adsorption/desorption of a metal pollutant.
6. Table 3.6 Factors affecting sorption/desorption of a hydrophobic pollutant.
Chapter 5
1. Table 5.1 Condensed summary of major natural lakes of the World (The World Alman...
2. Table 5.2 Water volumes in The Great Lakes of North America (The World Almanac 2...
3. Table 5.3 Forces that form lakes.
4. Table 5.4E_H values for common terminal electron acceptors (TEAs).
5. Table 5.5 Particle settling velocity as a function of particle size (Lapple 1961...
Chapter 6
1. Table 6.1 Drainage area and annual flow of the major rivers of the world.
2. Table 6.2 The approximate number of streams, average length, and average dischar...
Chapter 7
1. Table 7.1 Solubility of oxygen for water in contact with the atmosphere (at 1 at...
2. Table 7.2 Table of reaeration constants.
Chapter 9
1. Table 9.1 Pasquill stability categories (collected for rural settings in England...
2. Table 9.2 Pasquill–Gifford horizontal dispersion parameters.
3. Table 9.3 Pasquill–Gifford vertical dispersion parameter for rural step inputs.
4. Table 9.4 Urban dispersion parameters for step and pulse inputs.
Chapter 10
1. Table 10.1 Generic river/WASP considerations (guidelines) for waterbody segmenta...
2. Table 10.2 WASP linked water quality models.
3. Table 10.3 Integrated watershed – scale modeling systems.
4. Table 10.4 BASINS date layers environmental monitoring date in BASINS modeling s...
Chapter 11
1. Table 11.1 Some commonplace risks.
2. Table 11.2 Leading causes of death in the United States for the year 2000.
3. Table 11.3 Activities that increase annual mortality risk by one in a million.
4. Table 11.4 EPA‐recommended exposure factors for risk assessment.
5. Table 11.5 Oral RfDs for selected pollutants.
6. Table 11.6 Inhalation RfCs for selected pollutants.
7. Table 11.7 Carcinogenicity assessment: carcinogenic risk from oral exposure for ...
8. Table 11.8 Carcinogenicity assessment: carcinogenic risk from inhalation exposur...
9. Table 11.9 EPA weight of evidence classification system for carcinogenicity.
10. Table 11.10 Bioconcentration factor for DDT in a Long Island Food Web (USA).
11. Table 11.11 Bioconcentration factors (BFCs) for selected pollutants.
Chapter 12
1. Table 12.1 Summary and timeline of the major environmental laws.
2. Table 12.2 Major US environmental organizations.
3. Table 12.3 Criteria air pollutants, effects, sources, and primary and secondary ...
4. Table 12.4 Ozone‐destroying chemicals and proposed dates for ending production.
Chapter 15
1. Table 15.1 Production and use of 12 POPs.
Chapter 16
1. Table 16.1 Total suspended solid and total dissolved solid.
2. Table 16.2 Solubility of dissolved oxygen for water in contact with the dry atmo...
3. Table 16.3 BOD₅measurable from various dilutions of sample (Standard Methods for...
4. Table 16.4 Cu solutions table for Teams 1 and 2.
5. Table 16.5 CuK_d on backyard soil as a function of Cu concentration (data); Envir...
6. Table 16.6 CuK_d on montmorillonite sorbent as a function of Cu concentration (da...
7. Table 16.7 Student data for Figure 16.8; simulated river with weirs.
8. Table 16.8 Student data for Experiment 16.6.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1
1. Figure 1.1 An overview of the approach to access human risk used in the United...
2. Figure 1.2 The dissolved oxygen concentration profile of a stream receiving unt...
3. Figure 1.3 The dissolved oxygen concentration profile of a stream receiving 95%...
4. Figure 1.4 Predicted isoconcentration lines for TCE at the INEEL Tan injection ...
5. Figure 1.5 Predicted isoconcentration lines for TCE at the INEEL Tan injection ...
6. Figure 1.6 Predicted isoconcentration lines for TCE at the INEEL Tan injection ...
7. Figure 1.7 The route of the Rhine River in Western Europe.
8. Figure 1.8 The concentration of disulfoton at each monitoring station on the Rh...
Chapter 2
1. Figure 2.1 The global water cycle.
2. Figure 2.2 Electronic structure of water.
3. Figure 2.3 Melting points of Group VI hydrides.
4. Figure 2.4 Boiling points of Group VI hydrides.
5. Figure 2.5 Illustration of ions of Ca²⁺ and in aqueous solution.
6. Figure 2.6 Summary and comparison of aqueous solubilities of selected pollutant...
7. Figure 2.7 Representative structures of natural organic matter.
8. Figure 2.8 Summary and comparison of vapor pressures of selected pollutants.
9. Figure 2.9 Summary and comparison of Henry's law constants of selected pollutan...
10. Figure 2.10 A pC–pH diagram for a closed 0.0200 M carbonate system.
11. Figure 2.11 A pC–pH diagram for an open carbonate system in contact with an atm...
12. Figure 2.12 The electrochemical potential of water as a function of the termina...
13. Figure 2.13 Reduction of 3‐chloronitrobenzene at a pH of 7.2 and E_H of −0.207 V...
14. Figure 2.14 Reduction products of 3‐chloronitrobenzene.
15. Figure 2.15 Reduction pathway of 3‐chloronitrobenzene.
16. Figure 2.16 The reduction of 3‐chloronitrobenzene as a function of pH.
17. Figure 2.17 The reduction of 3‐chloronitrobenzene as a function of E_H.
18. Figure 2.18 Comparison of second‐order rate constants for a variety of NOM samp...
19. Figure 2.19 A summary of the effects of NOM concentration and E_H on the reducti...
20. Figure 2.20 Structure of kaolinite.
21. Figure 2.21 Structure of montmorillonite.
22. Figure 2.22 Hypothetical PZSE determination by a simulated titration.
23. Figure 2.23 Scanning electron microscope image of an individual (a) and aggrega...
24. Figure 2.24 The location of NOM on sediment particles. The white pixels represe...
25. Figure 2.25 (a–c). PCB concentration as a function of sediment depth in Lake Ha...
26. Figure 2.26 Generalized reaction scheme for the reduction of a pollutant by abi...
27. Figure 2.27 The distribution of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) at the Earth's ...
Chapter 3
1. Figure 3.1 Generalization of K as a function of molar concentration of electro...
2. Figure 3.2 Complexation diagram for Pb²⁺ and I⁻ species.
3. Figure 3.3 Speciation of Cd²⁺ in solution with NTA.
4. Figure 3.4 E_H–pH diagram for dissolved iron.
5. Figure 3.5 Adsorption isotherm for methoxychlor on clay.
6. Figure 3.6 Methoxychlor K_p as a function of sediment organic carbon.
7. Figure 3.7 K_oc as a function of compound water solubility and octanol/water dis...
8. Figure 3.8 Release of a PCB from sediment suspensions.
9. Figure 3.9 Comparison of the standard two‐box, two first‐order desorption model...
10. Figure 3.10 The net result of the pollutant desorption–sorption process with co...
11. Figure 3.11 General classes of adsorption isotherms. (a) S‐curve, (b) L‐curve, ...
12. Figure 3.12 (a) Langmuir and (b) Freundlich adsorption isotherm.
13. Figure 3.13 (a) Solid‐phase concentration versus (b) liquid phase concentration...
14. Figure 3.14 Plot of 2,2′,6,6′‐tetrachlorobiphenyl data illustrating the linear ...
15. Figure 3.15 Example of equilibrium sorption results (K) for a hydrophobic pollu...
Chapter 4
1. Figure 4.1 A linear calibration model.
2. Figure 4.2 Two common exponential (first‐order) models. (a) Decreasing exponent...
3. Figure 4.3 Output from Fate for an instantaneous input of pollution to a lake s...
4. Figure 4.4 Output from Fate for a step input of pollution to a lake system.
5. Figure 4.5 Illustration of a finite difference approach for estimating pollutan...
6. Figure 4.6 Illustration of a finite element approach for estimating pollutant c...
7. Figure 4.7 A conceptual comparison of the differential equations and numerical ...
Chapter 5
1. Figure 5.1 Approximate comparison of the surface area of the world's largest l...
2. Figure 5.2 The number of lakes correlated to (a) surface area and (b) depth.
3. Figure 5.3 Seasonal mixing of the surface waters of Lake Michigan. (a) Summer, ...
4. Figure 5.4 Stratification of lakes during annual cycles. The left‐hand side of ...
5. Figure 5.5 Illustration of increase in depth of the thermocline and chemocline ...
6. Figure 5.6 Terminal electron acceptor profiles.
7. Figure 5.7 Plankton new sampler
8. Figure 5.8 Surber‐type stream bottom sampler.
9. Figure 5.9 Grab sampler for obtaining surface water and hazardous samples.
10. Figure 5.10 Van Dorn style subsurface water sampler
11. Figure 5.11 Hand core sediment sampler.
12. Figure 5.12 Ekman dredge.
13. Figure 5.13 An example of natural sedimentation burying chromium‐contaminated s...
14. Figure 5.14 Diagram of a step input of pollution to a lake.
15. Figure 5.15 The results of a step input of pollutant to a lake (results from Fa...
16. Figure 5.16 The results of the step input from Figure 5.7 , showing the effec...
17. Figure 5.17 Diagram of a pulse input of pollution to a lake.
18. Figure 5.18 The results of a pulse input of pollutant to a lake (results from F...
19. Figure 5.19 The results of a sensitivity analysis on degradation rate constant ...
20. Figure 5.20 A diagram of the shoreline and basins contained in Lake Hartwell (S...
Chapter 6
1. Figure 6.1 Major rivers of North America.
2. Figure 6.2 Illustration of a stream channel with a pollution release.
3. Figure 6.3 (a) The junction (mixing) of two streams (one from a clear lake and ...
4. Figure 6.4 A plane view of a stream channel, showing longitudinal dispersion.
5. Figure 6.5 Example problem output from Fate® for a continuous (step) pollutant ...
6. Figure 6.6 Concentration versus distance from point source for the instantaneou...
7. Figure 6.7 Results of a sensitivity analysis of water velocity for a step pollu...
Chapter 7
1. Figure 7.1 The effects of sewage outflow on dissolved oxygen levels in three m...
2. Figure 7.3 DO sag curve plot showing the effects of sewage on DO concentration ...
3. Figure 7.4 DO sag curve plot of the same stream shown in Figure 7.3 but afte...
4. Figure 7.2 Dissolved oxygen demand (BOD) as a function of time in a BOD_L experi...
5. Figure 7.5 Diagram of the basic components of a typical sewage treatment plant.
6. Figure 7.6 Incoming flow rates in millions of gallons over a 24‐hour sampling p...
7. Figure 7.7 A DO sag curve labeled with its various zones of pollution and recov...
8. Figure 7.8 (a) A DO sag curve for the example problem. Output from Fate® for th...
9. Figure 7.9 (a–c). A diagram of the City of Walla Walla (Washington, USA) wastew...
Chapter 8
1. Figure 8.1 (a–c) Cross section of an aquifer.
2. Figure 8.2 A cable tool drill rig.
3. Figure 8.3 A cable tool drill bit and bailer.
4. Figure 8.4 A direct rotary drill rig.
5. Figure 8.5 A direct rotary drill rig being used to drill a diagonal well.
6. Figure 8.6 A handheld auger drilling system.
7. Figure 8.7 The addition of grouting materials to a borehole.
8. Figure 8.8 Illustration of the effectiveness of grouting in lysimeter placement...
9. Figure 8.9 A standard bailer. WaterMark® Dome‐End 36″ Disposable Polyethylene S...
10. Figure 8.10 A battery‐operated pump of purging and sampling groundwater monitor...
11. Figure 8.11 An in situ monitoring device for groundwater monitoring wells: Hydr...
12. Figure 8.12 Breakthrough curves for Cd²⁺ on a NOM‐saturated soil column as ...
13. Figure 8.13 Breakthrough curves for the adsorption and desorption process for C...
14. Figure 8.14 Breakthrough curves for a polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) as a funct...
15. Figure 8.15 (a–c) The three‐point problem.
16. Figure 8.16 Sources of dispersion in geologic media.
17. Figure 8.17 Disposal of radioactive waste at the INEEL.
18. Figure 8.18 Flooding of the waste site in 1969.
19. Figure 8.19 A BTC for ⁷⁵Se at the INEEL experiment.
20. Figure 8.20 A BTC for ⁷⁵Se at the INEEL experiment.
21. Figure 8.21 An illustrative summary of results from the INEEL experiment.
22. Figure 8.22 An overview of the infiltration experiment at the INEEL.
23. Figure 8.23 Summary of dispersivity values for the INEEL experiment. Units are ...
24. Figure 8.24 A summary of dispersivity data from various field investigations. U...
25. Figure 8.25 Example step problem output from Fate®.
26. Figure 8.26 Example instantaneous problem output from Fate®.
27. Figure 8.27 An illustration of an instantaneous (pulse) input of pollution to a...
28. Figure 8.28 An illustration of a step (continuous) input of pollution to and tw...
29. Figure 8.29 A summary of technologies used in groundwater remediation.
Chapter 9
1. Figure 9.1 The Model 200 Wet‐Only Rainwater Sampler designed by Ecotech Pty Lt...
2. Figure 9.2 The MicroVol 1100 Particulate Sampler designed by Ecotech Pty Ltd., ...
3. Figure 9.3 The HV3000 High Volume Air Sampler designed by Ecotech Pty Ltd, Blac...
4. Figure 9.4 The Supelco Q‐MAX Pump for taking small samples of inorganic compoun...
5. Figure 9.5 The effect of surface roughness on wind speed.
6. Figure 9.6 Three basic turbulence scenarios for plumes. (a) mixing in a inversi...
7. Figure 9.7 Pasquill–Gifford horizontal dispersion parameters for rural and step...
8. Figure 9.8 Pasquill–Gifford vertical dispersion parameters for rural and step i...
9. Figure 9.9 Output from Fate^© for a continuous release (plume) of pollutant...
10. Figure 9.10 Output from Fate^© for a continuous release (plume) of pollutan...
11. Figure 9.11 An evaluation of the pollutant concentration as you move away from ...
12. Figure 9.12 Concentration profile in the positive and negative y direction for ...
13. Figure 9.13 Concentration profile in the positive and negative z direction for ...
14. Figure 9.14 Pasquill–Gifford horizontal dispersion parameters for urban setting...
15. Figure 9.15 Pasquill–Gifford vertical dispersion parameters for urban settings.
16. Figure 9.16 Concentration profile for the positive and negative y direction for...
17. Figure 9.17 Concentration profile for the positive and negative z direction for...
Chapter 10
1. Figure 10.1 Original Qual – 2E processes.
2. Figure 10.2 WASP model segmentation for a lake note numbers show boxes used in ...
3. Figure 10.3 Model network with advective transport pathways.
4. Figure 10.4 BASINS screenshot of GIS interface and typical use of data layers (...
Chapter 11
1. Figure 11.1 The general relationship between risk and dose of carcinogen and no...
2. Figure 11.2 The general relationship between response and dose for a noncarcino...
Chapter 12
1. Figure 12.1 The Hazardous Waste Manifest Form required by EPA to ship hazardous...
2. Figure 12.2 An outline of the Superfund process.
Chapter 15
1. Figure 15.1 Lead air quality for a variety of sites in the United States from ...
2. Figure 15.2 Lead emissions in the United States for years 1970 (a) and 1997 (b)...
3. Figure 15.3 Structure of 2,2′,4,4′,6,6′‐hexachlorobiphenyl, a PCB.
4. Figure 15.4 Structure of DDT and its major degradation products.
Chapter 16
1. Figure 16.1 EDTA structural formula.
2. Figure 16.2 Dissolved oxygen remaining in diluted BOD sample.
3. Figure 16.3Figure 16.3 BOD as a function of time.
4. Figure 16.4 Thomas slope analysis of BOD data.
5. Figure 16.5 Cu K_d on backyard soil as a function of Cu concentration (Plot).
6. Figure 16.6 Plot of Cu K_d on montmorillonite sorbent as a function of Cu concen...
7. Figure 16.7 Photogram of a constructed PVC river.
8. Figure 16.8 A plot of simulated river results for the environmental chemistry a...
9. Figure 16.9 Overview photograph of the step groundwater experimental apparatus.
10. Figure 16.10 Close‐up image of the step groundwater "T" joint and the transfer ...
11. Figure 16.11 Sample student‐generated experimental data for the conservative tr...

Frank M. Dunnivant
Elliot Anders

This edition first published 2019

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data applied for

ISBN: 9781119414629

Cover design by Wiley

Cover images: Background: Courtesy of Karen Bauschlicher, Whitman College, Class of 2022.

Overlay: Courtesy of Frank M. Dunnivant

To the chemists who have had a positive influence on my career: Loretta McLean, John Coates, Alan Elzerman, Philip Jardine, and Rene Schwarzenbach. And to my family, Marion, Lukas, and Marley. Thanks to all of you,

Frank M. Dunnivant

To my family, Tessa, Jude, and Elsa, thank you for supporting me throughout.

Elliot Anders

Preface

While there are many of textbooks on environmental chemistry and fate and transport phenomena, and they each have their place in education, this is the first book to truly integrate the subjects chemistry, fate and transport modeling, assessment, laws, and environmental laboratory experiments. The entire text was edited to ensure a consistent modeling theme that is vital to the regulatory applications of environmental fate and transport of contaminant science. These applications are truly multimedia in scope and encompass modern‐day regulations in successful EPA approaches in the Clean Air Water and Drinking Water Acts. The related RCRA and CERCLA (Superfund) programs address hazardous and toxic materials and ensure that environmental and human health are equally protected. These laws use mathematical models to assess contaminant exposure that contribute to multiple adverse effects in the biosphere. Most books in this genre are conceptual in nature or require a working knowledge of differential calculus to effectively derive and use new models. This prerequisite effectively eliminates many people from working in fate and transport.

We approach each of these topics initially from a conceptual perspective, and then, we explain the concepts in terms of the math necessary to model the problem. The only prerequisites for understanding the concepts covered in this book are a basic knowledge of algebra and first‐year college chemistry. Mathematic enthusiasts will find the extensive, step‐by‐step, end‐of‐chapter derivations useful. This last feature is unique to all other textbooks. For the fate and transport modeling chapters (Chapters 4-9), we have included a simple, user‐friendly web‐based, online simulator, Fate®, which uses basic step and pulse models to predict the fate and transport of pollutants in lake, river, groundwater, and atmospheric systems. Fate® can be an effective teaching and learning tool, as discussed in the “How to Use Fate” section of the introductory materials.

This book is the result of a challenge I made to one of my senior chemistry students. I challenged Elliot Anders, the coauthor of this book, to create a new version of EnviroLand, the precursor to Fate®. If he did so, I told him, I would write a book to accompany it. To my surprise, Elliot finished the software in a few months and to meet my end of the bet, I had to write the 2006 textbook around the software. We feel that this textbook provides a very unique instructional tool for students and environmental professions who lack the rigorous mathematical backgrounds to be able to derive the governing fate and transport equations, but nonetheless require an understanding of the subject. This book can be used to teach a variety of classes, from a new type of environmental chemistry course to new fate and transport courses for support personnel who want to work in the environmental arena. I use the book to teach environmental chemistry to undergraduate students majoring in chemistry, geology, and biology, to mostly prepare them for work in the environmental consulting arena and government. These students usually have sufficient background to work in environmental remediation but lack the basic engineering knowledge to be truly effective in this area. I have had great success in expanding the academic horizons of science students to areas of chemistry, modeling, risk assessment, and environmental legislation. In addition, there is no reason that this book cannot be used in a graduate course in fate and transport, since it provides an especially extensive and complete development of fate and transport models. In this case, the professor can use the book as a conceptual guide while teaching the derivation portion of the course in the classroom.

New additions to this book include free software available at https://sites.google.com/a/whitman.edu/frank‐dunnivant‐webpage/environmentalsoftware:

an Web‐based Pollutant Fate and Transport Simulator, (Fate®)
a pC‐pH Simulator
Water and Wastewater Plant Tour Video
EnviroLab
More end‐of‐chapter problems with answers to the more complicated problems
New environmental lab chapters on the United States, European Union, and China
Student lab results for suggested experiments
A supporting discussion‐based book entitled Environmental Success Stories with Columbia University Press

We hope you enjoy our approach to environmental chemistry and pollutant fate and transport modeling.

Frank M. Dunnivant

September 2018

Acknowledgments

A book of this detail and 20‐year effort has involved many people. First, I thank my coauthor, Elliot Anders, for challenging me to make the software better than the original Visual Basic version. Next, I thank Raymond Whittemore for writing, editing, and making many, many excellent suggestions. Note Dr. Whittemore's experience with, and knowledge of regulatory modeling were essential to the revised theme of this edition. Ray participated in water quality modeling training workshops for more than a decade for EPA's Exposure Assessment Laboratory in Athens, GA. Late in his career, he participated in the EPA Council for Regulatory Environmental Modeling (CREM) development in a leadership role in the surface water quality modeling group discussions.

Then, I thank Dr. Nate Boland and his students for testing this book and materials in his Environmental Chemistry and Engineering class at Whitman College. Certainly, a great thank you goes to my former student John Brooksbank for derivations of the many pollutant fate and transport equations that do not appear in any textbook in this detail. Many students can earn an A in differential equations but few can apply the knowledge like John has. The end‐of‐chapter problems, answers, and laboratory experiment results have been provided by 19 years of students taking my classes. I thank all of you for a job well done.

Acronyms

α: alpha type of radiation
ADD: average daily doses
AF: Risk: soil to skin adherence factor (mg/cm²)
AID: maximum acceptable daily intake
Al₂O₃: aluminum oxide
A_s: mean lake or system surface area, m²
AT: Risk: average time period of exposure (days)
AMD: acid mine drainage
β: beta type of radiation
BAP: best available practice
BFC: bioconcentration factors
BOD: biochemical oxygen demand
Bq: Becquerel
BW: Risk: body weight (kg)
c: the speed of light in a vacuum (2.99 × 10⁸ m/s)
C: the pollutant concentration in the water (mass/length³ or volume; mg/l, etc.) or molar charge
Ci: curies, a measure of radiation
C_i: the pollutant concentration in the main inlet river or system, kg/m³
C₆H₁₂O₆: chemical formula for glucose
CA: Risk: pollutant concentration in the air (mg/m³)
CAS: Chemical Abstract Number
CCA: Air Quality Act, The Clean Air Act
CCRs: coal combustion residuals
CDC: Center for Disease Control and Prevention
CEAM: EPA Center for Exposure Assessment Modeling
CEC: cation exchange capacity
CERCLA: Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
CF: Risk: volumetric conversion factor for water (1.00 l/1000. cm³)
CF: Risk: pollutant concentration in the food (mg/kg)
CF: Risk: pollutant concentration in the fish or shellfish (mg/kg)
CF: Risk: pollutant concentration in the fish (mg/kg d)
CFL: compact fluorescent lamp
CH₄: chemical formula for methane (gas)
CO: carbon monoxide; Colorado, a state in the United States
CO₂: carbon dioxide
: carbonate
COC: contaminants of concern
COE: Army Corps of Engineers
C_p: the net pollutant concentration in precipitation, kg/m³
CR: Risk: contact rate (0.050 l/h)
CREM: EPA Council for Regulatory Modeling
C_s: the average pollutant release from suspended lake sediments, kg/m³‐time
CS: Risk: pollutant concentration in the soil (mg/kg)
CSTR: continuous stirred tank reactor
C_T: the total concentration of all chemical species for this chemical
C_trib: the net pollutant concentration of the tributaries, kg/m³
C_w: the pollutant concentration in the wastewater, kg/m³
CW: Risk: pollutant concentration in the drinking water (mg/L)
CWRA: Clean Water Restoration Act
d: average stream depth
DBMS: Database Management System
DDT: 1,1′‐(2,2,2‐trichloroethylidene)bis[4‐chloro‐benzene]
DEM: Dynamic Estuary Model
DNAPL: dense nonaqueous phase liquid(s)
DO: dissolved oxygen
DOD: Department of Defense
DOE: Department of Energy
DWEL: drinking water equivalent levels
e⁻: an electron
E: energy; longitudinal eddy diffusion term
ED: Risk: exposure duration (number of years)
EDC: endocrine disrupting compound
EDTA: ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
EF: Risk: exposure frequency (d/yr)
EFDC: Environmental Fluid Dynamics Code
E_H: oxidation–reduction potential
EIS: environmental impact statement
EPA: Environmental Protection Agency
EPA LUST: Environmental Protection Agency Leaking Underground Storage Tank
EPCRA: Emergency Planning and Community Right to Know Act
EPTT: extraction procedure toxicity test
ESA: Endangered Species Act
EXAMs: Exposure Analysis Modeling System
F: Faraday constant (96 485 C/mol of electrons)
FIFRA: Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
Fe₂O₃: iron oxide
FeCO₃: iron carbonate
FI: Risk: fraction of soil ingested from the polluted site
FWPCA: Federal Water Pollution Control Act
γ: gamma type of radiation
g: the acceleration due to gravity (length/time²)
g: grams
GEOCHEM: a numerical modeling program for determining chemical speciation
GLBTS: Great Lakes Binational Toxics Strategy
η: kinematic viscosity of the fluid (length²/time)
h: Planck's constant (6.63 × 10⁻³⁴ J s)
H: the water depth (length)
H⁺ or H₃O⁺: hydronium ion, acidic hydrogen
H₂O: chemical formula for water
HRS: hazardous ranking system
HCl: hydrochloric acid
: hydrogen carbonate, bicarbonate
H₂CO₃: carbonic acid
HQ: hazard quotient
H₂S: hydrogen sulfide gas
HS⁻: chemical formula for hydrogen sulfide ion
INEEL: Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory
IR: Risk: inhalation rate (m³/d)
IR: Risk: ingestion rate of water (l/d)
ISC: industrial source complex
k: the first‐order removal rate for the pollutant, 1/time
k_d: the first‐order BOD decay rate
k_r: the DO re‐aeration rate
k_NOM: the rate constant in the presence of Natural Organic Matter (NOM)
K_a: the acidity equilibrium constant
K_b: the basicity equilibrium constant
K_d: distribution coefficient
K_H: air‐water Henry's law constant
K_p: partition coefficient
K_sp: solubility product constant
K_w: the water ionization constant; 1.00 × 10⁻¹⁴ (at 25 ^°C)
λ: the wavelength in meters
l: liters, a measure of volume
LCA: life cycle assessment
LCOE: levelized cost of energy
LED: light‐emitting diode
ln: natural logarithm
LNAPL: light nonaqueous phase liquid
LOAEL: lowest‐observed‐adverse‐effect level
LOEL: lowest‐observed‐effect level
LUST: leaking underground storage tank
J: Joules, a measure of energy
μ: ion strength
M: molarity, mol/l
M_o: the total mass of pollutant in the river
meq: milliequalivance
NEPA: National Environmental Policy Act
MIC: methyl isocyanate
MINTECH: a numerical modeling program for determining chemical speciation
MINEQL+: a numerical modeling program for determining chemical speciation
NIOSH: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
MnO₂: chemical formula for manganese dioxide
MPRSA: Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act
MTBE: methyl tert‐butyl ether
NAAQS: national ambient air quality standard
NEPA: National Environmental Policy Act
N₂: chemical formula for nitrogen gas
NOM: natural organic matter
NO_x: combinations of nitrogen oxide and nitrogen dioxide
: chemical formula for nitrate
NOAEL: no‐observed‐adverse‐effect level
NOEL: no‐observed‐effect level
NPL: National Priorities List
NTA: nitrilotriacetic acid
O*: radical gaseous oxygen
OH⁻: hydroxide ion
OH*: radical gaseous hydroxide
O₃: ozone gas
OPA: Oil Pollution Act
OSHA: Occupational Safety and Health Act or Administration
p: as in pC or p(anything); represents the negative log of the quantity; example: pCO₂ represent the negative log of the carbon dioxide molar concentration in pC–pH diagrams
pH: negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration
pH_ZPC: the pH where there is no surface charge
P: annual precipitation, m/time; phosphorus
Pb: lead
PBDE: polybrominated diphenyl ethers
PCBs: polychlorinated biphenyls
PFOA: perfluorooctanoate
PFOS: perfluoroocotanesulfonate
PPA: Pollution Prevention Act
ppb: parts per billion
ppm: parts per million
PSD: prevention of significant deterioration
PZC: point of zero charge in clay titrations
PZSE: point of zero salt effect
Q_e: the outlet or effluent flow of water from the lake or system (m³/time)
Q_i: the inflow rate of the main river water or system, m³/time
Q_trib: the net inflow rate of water from all other tributaries, m³/time
Q_w: the inflow rate of water or wastewater, m³/time
r: the spherical particle radius (length)
R: ideal gas law constant, with a variety of units; ion radius
r_A: the rate of decrease in pollutant A concentration per unit volume of water (mass/length³‐time)
RCRA: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
r_f: the density of the fluid (mass/length3)
RfD: reference dose
RI‐FS: remedial investigation‐feasibility study
r_s: the density of the spherical particle (mass/length³)
s: the slope or gradient of the stream bed
S: the suspended solids concentration (mass/length³)
SA: (cross) sectional area
SA: Risk: skin surface area available for contact (cm³)
SAP: sampling and analysis plan
SARA: Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
SCRAM: support center for regulatory atmospheric modeling
SDWA: Safe Drinking Water Act
SIP: state implementation program(s)
SPARC: chemical parameter estimator software from EPA
SOD: sediment oxygen demand
SO_x: a combination of sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide gases
: chemical formula for sulfate
SWDA: Solid Waste Disposal Act
T: temperature
t_o: detention time of water or chemical in a system
TAN: Test Area North
TAN‐05: injection well (Test Area North)
TCE: trichloroethylene
TCLP: toxicity characteristic leaching procedure
TDS: total dissolved solids
TESS: threatened and endangered species system
TEA: terminal electron acceptor
THM: trihalomethane
TMDL: total maximum daily load
TRI: toxic release inventory
TSCA: Toxic Substances Control Act
TSS: total suspended solids
US EPA: United States Environmental Protection Agency
USGS: United States Geologic Survey
USTs: underground storage tanks
v: the frequency of light (1/s)
V: volume, in length³ or l
ω: settling velocity of a particle in natural water
w: average stream width
W: the mass input of pollutant to the lake (or system) per unit time, kg/time
WASP: water quality analysis simulation program
WES: Waterways Experiment Station of the Corps of Engineers
Z: charge of an ion
z/R: ionic potential (charge/radius)

Glossary

Adsorption

The process of accumulating an excess of a chemical on a surface. As used in this text, it refers to the concentrating of pollutant on a mineral or NOM‐coated mineral surface.

Advection

The transport of pollution in the direction of flow.

Anaerobic

An aquatic or atmospheric system that does not contain oxygen. This term is the same as anoxic.

Anoxic

Devoid of oxygen.

Abiotic reaction

A chemical reaction that takes place without the aid or in the complete absence of microorganisms.

Basel convention

An international treaty regulating the reporting, disposal, and transport of hazardous waste. The United States is currently not a member of this treaty.

Biota

Any living organism in an ecosystem.

Biotic reaction

A chemical reaction that occurs due to a microbial process (enzymes in the microbe cell).

BOD

Biochemical oxygen demand, the amount of dissolved oxygen required by microorganisms to oxidize organic matter present in the water.

Cation exchange

The concentration of sorbed cations that can be readily exchanged for other cations.

capacity (CEC)

Confined aquifer

An underground body of flowing water that is located below the layer of strata that is impermeable to water.

Conservative tracer

A chemical tracer that does not degrade and is not sorbed by anything in the water. The chemical moves freely with the water.

Contaminant

A chemical that is out of its proper place. In this text, we will use the term contaminant and pollutant interchangeable.

Dispersion

A mixing process resulting from advection which always dilutes the concentration of pollutant.

DNAPL

Dense nonaqueous phase liquid. An example is carbon tetrachloride.

DO

Dissolved oxygen; the concentration of dissolved oxygen in water, usually from 0 to 14 mg/l.

DOM

Dissolved organic matter. These are components of NOM that are soluble is water.

E

The longitudinal dispersion (eddy) coefficient for streams.

Environmental

A study required by the National Environmental Policy Act to attempt to determine if any adverse effects will occur from governmental actions such as the building of a building, plant, or even a remediation effort.

impact statement

Empirical

A relationship based on experiment data.

Epilimnion

The upper region of a stratified lake.

Eutrophication

An overproductive aquatic system. Excess alga growth occurs during the day due to the presence of excess nutrients, but during nighttime hours, the oxygen is depleted below levels that can support aerobic life.

Explanative modeling

A model that attempts to explain how something happened. For example modelers can use mathematical relationships to explain how a pollutant moved to where it is, where it originally came from, or how much pollutant was originally released.

Head

The height of a water column.

Hypolimnion

The lower or bottom region of a stratified lake.

LNAPL

Light nonaqueous phase liquid. An example is gasoline.

Longitudinal

The mixing of pollution in water or air in the direction of flow.

dispersion

Modeling

An attempt to explain a process in a simpler form. Models can take on several forms including physical models that are usually small‐scale versions of the real thing. We will limit our discussions in the text to mathematical models, which are very simple mathematical relations of more complicated processes. The more the terms we include in our models, the more the processes we account for in our model and theoretically, the more accurate our model will predict the real system.

NAPL

Nonaqueous phase liquid. An example would be oil or gasoline.

Nitrobenzene

A benzene molecule with an attached nitro (NO₂) group. Nitrobenzenes can also have other functional groups such as methyl (CH₃), chloro (Cl), and many other chemical groups attached to the benzene ring.

NOM

Natural organic matter. NOM results from the accumulation of degradation products from plants and animals in soil and water.

Nonpoint pollutant

A source of pollutant that cannot be identified as a specific location. Examples would be runoff from a large area of land such as a parking lot or agricultural setting and atmospheric inputs.

source

Partitioning

Partitioning is very similar to adsorption but does not involve a site‐specific reaction. It is more of a solvation or dissolving of a pollutant into NOM.

pC

A way of representing concentration units on the log scale. “p” stands for the negative log of anything. “C” stands for the concentration (in any units) of any chemical species.

pH

The negative low of the hydrogen ion concentration.

Point pollutant source

A source of pollution that can be pinpointed to a specific location. For example the output pipe from an industrial process or sewage treatment plant would be a point source.

Predictive modeling

A model that attempts to predict what will happen at a future time. For example, in this text, we are concerned with predicting the concentration of pollutant at some point (location or time) in the future.

Pulse or

A release of pollutant that occurs over a very short time scale and contains a finite volume or mass of pollutant. This type of release is in contrast to a step or continuous pollutant release.

instantaneous release of pollutant

Refractory pollutant

A pollutant that does not readily degrade (degrades slowly or not at all).

Remediate

To cleanup a waste site to acceptable pollutant concentrations.

Residence time

The average time a chemical spends in an environmental compartment. This can be obtained by dividing the volume of the compartment or mass of a chemical in a compartment by the outflow from the system (volume / volume per time = average residence time).

Sensitivity analysis

A process that results in two distinct layers of water in a lake system.

Stratification results due to heating of the surface water and cooling of lower waters by the Earth that sets up a density difference in the two bodies of water. The cool water settles to the bottom of the lake, while the warmer water is present at the surface.

Surface aquifer

The ground water closest to the land surface.

Step or continuous

A release of a pollutant that occurs over a long‐time scale. Examples include the constant release of sulfide from a pulp mill and the release of nitrate from a sewage treatment plant.

pollutant release

Vadose zone

The portion of the ground that is unsaturated with respect to water.

Variable

A symbol representing a mathematical term or the term of interest in a mathematical expression. For example, velocity is an important term in fate and transport, and it is represented by the variable, v.

Watershed

The drainage area of land surrounding and feeding water into a lake or river basin.

Pollutant Fate and Transport in Environmental Multimedia

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Acknowledgments

Acronyms

Glossary