Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright
List of Contributors
Preface
1. References
Foreword
Symbols and Abbreviations

Part I: Synthesis, Characterization, and Evaluation of Nanocatalysts in Ionic Liquids

Chapter 1: Fe, Ru, and Os Nanoparticles
1. 1.1 Introduction
2. 1.2 Synthesis of Fe, Ru, and Os NPs in ILs
3. 1.3 Ionic Liquid Stabilization of Metal Nanoparticles
4. 1.4 Applications of Ru, Fe, and Os Nanoparticles to Catalysis
5. 1.5 Conclusion
6. Acknowledgments
7. References
Chapter 2: Co, Rh, and Ir Nanoparticles
1. 2.1 Introduction
2. 2.2 Chemical Routes for the Synthesis of Metal NPs in ILs
3. 2.3 Catalytic Application of Metal NPs in ILs
4. 2.4 Conclusions
5. References
Chapter 3: Ni and Pt Nanoparticles
1. 3.1 Introduction
2. 3.2 Synthesis and Characterization of Pt NPs in ILs
3. 3.3 Catalytic Applications of Pt NPs in ILs
4. 3.4 Synthesis and Characterization of Ni NPs in ILs
5. 3.5 Catalytic Applications of Ni NPs in ILs
6. 3.6 Summary and Conclusions
7. Symbols and Abbreviations
8. References
Chapter 4: Pd Nanoparticles for Coupling Reactions and Domino/Tandem Reactions
1. 4.1 Introduction
2. 4.2 Formation of Pd NPs in ILs
3. 4.3 The Heck Coupling
4. 4.4 The Suzuki Reaction
5. 4.5 The Stille Coupling
6. 4.6 The Sonogashira Coupling
7. 4.7 Summary and Conclusions
8. Acknowledgments
9. References
Chapter 5: Soluble Pd Nanoparticles for Catalytic Hydrogenation
1. 5.1 Introduction
2. 5.2 Synthesis of Pd Nanoparticles in ILs
3. 5.3 Pd Nanoparticles for Hydrogenation
4. 5.4 Summary and Conclusions
5. Ionic Liquid Abbreviations
6. References
Chapter 6: Au, Ag, and Cu Nanostructures
1. 6.1 Introduction
2. 6.2 Au NPs in the Presence of ILs
3. 6.3 Catalytic Applications of AuNP/IL Composites
4. 6.4 Ag NPs in the Presence of ILs
5. 6.5 Cu NPs in the Presence of ILs
6. 6.6 Summary and Conclusions
7. Acronyms
8. References
Chapter 7: Bimetallic Nanoparticles in Ionic Liquids: Synthesis and Catalytic Applications
1. 7.1 Introduction
2. 7.2 Synthesis of Bimetallic Nanoparticles in Ionic Liquids
3. 7.3 Applications in Catalysis
4. 7.4 Summary and Outlook
5. Acknowledgments
6. References
Chapter 8: Synthesis and Application of Metal Nanoparticle Catalysts in Ionic Liquid Media using Metal Carbonyl Complexes as Precursors
1. 8.1 Introduction
2. 8.2 Metal Carbonyls – Synthesis, Structure, and Bonding
3. 8.3 Metal Carbonyls for the Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles (M-NPs)
4. 8.4 Catalytic Applications of Metal Nanoparticles from Metal Carbonyls in ILs
5. 8.5 Conclusions
6. Acknowledgment
7. References
Chapter 9: Top-Down Synthesis Methods for Nanoscale Catalysts
1. 9.1 Introduction
2. 9.2 Sputter Deposition of Metals in RTILs
3. 9.3 Thermal Vapor Deposition on RTILs for Preparation of Metal Nanoparticles
4. 9.4 Laser-Induced Downsizing and Ablation of Materials
5. 9.5 Preparation of Single Crystals by Vapor Deposition onto RTILs
6. 9.6 Conclusion
7. References
Chapter 10: Electrochemical Preparation of Metal Nanoparticles in Ionic Liquids
1. 10.1 Introduction
2. 10.2 Basics of Electrodeposition
3. 10.3 Electrodeposition of Silver and Formation of Silver Nanoparticles in Ionic Liquids
4. 10.4 Electrochemical Formation of the Nanoparticles of Various Metals
5. 10.5 Summary and Conclusions
6. References

Part II: Perspectives for Application of Nanocatalysts in Ionic Liquids

Chapter 11: Tailoring Biomass Conversions using Ionic Liquid Immobilized Metal Nanoparticles
1. 11.1 Introduction
2. 11.2 Cellulose
3. 11.3 Lignin
4. 11.4 Fatty Acid and Its Derivatives
5. 11.5 Other Biomass Substrates
6. 11.6 Conclusion
7. References
Chapter 12: Nanoparticles on Supported Ionic Liquid Phases – Opportunities for Application in Catalysis
1. 12.1 Introduction
2. 12.2 Synthesis of Supported Ionic Liquid Phases (SILPs)
3. 12.3 Nanoparticles Immobilized onto Supported Ionic Liquid Phases (NPs@SILPs)
4. 12.4 Catalytic Applications of NPs@SILPs
5. 12.5 Summary and Conclusions
6. Acknowledgments
7. References
Chapter 13: Photovoltaic, Photocatalytic Application, and Water Splitting
1. 13.1 Introduction
2. 13.2 Photovoltaic Cells
3. 13.3 Photocatalytic Processes
4. 13.4 Water Splitting
5. 13.5 Summary and Conclusions
6. References
Index

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List of Illustrations

Chapter 1: Fe, Ru, and Os Nanoparticles

Scheme 1.1 Summary of the synthetic schemes for accessing Fe, Ru, and Os NPs in ILs.
Figure 1.1 In situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of Ru NPs generated from the reduction of [Ru(COD)(2-methylallyl)₂] by H₂ in (a) [C₄C₁Im][NTf₂], (b) [C₁₀C₁Im][NTf₂], (c) [C₄C₁Im][BF₄], and (d) [C₁₀C₁Im][BF₄].
Figure 1.2 TEM images of iron oxide (a) nanospheres, (b) nanocubes, and (c) nanorods synthesized in [C₄C₁Im][NTf₂] by thermal decomposition of Fe(CO)₅ using oleic acid and/oleylamine as capping agent.
Figure 1.3 Study of Ru NPs prepared in situ in phosphonium and imidazolium-based ILs. (a) Correlation between IL ionicity and Ru recyclability under catalytic conditions. (b) Schematic representation of the stabilization mechanism of Ru NPs by phosphonium IL supramolecular aggregates. (TAP, tetraalkylphosphonium; ⁻X, counter anion.)
Figure 1.4 Hcp crystalline 2 nm Ru NPs (hcp crystalline) within [C₄C₁im][Ntf₂] simulated using DFT methods (a) [C₄C₁Im][Ntf₂] IL structure, (b) Ru NPs, and (c) Ru NPs solvated in 828 ion pairs of [C₄C₁Im][Ntf₂].
Scheme 1.2 Selected hydrogenation reactions catalyzed by Ru NPs in ILs: (a) hydrogenation of cyclohexene, (b) hydrogenation of conjugated diene, 1,3-cyclohexadiene, and (c) selective hydrogenation of benzene.
Scheme 1.3 Chemoselective hydrogenation of (a) aromatic ketones and (b) aromatic nitriles catalyzed by Ru NPs in ILs.
Scheme 1.4 Selective hydrogenation of alkynes with Fe NPs in ILs.

Chapter 2: Co, Rh, and Ir Nanoparticles

Figure 2.1 Examples of ILs used for the synthesis of Ir, Rh, and Co NPs.
Scheme 2.1 Synthesis of metal NPs by chemical reduction of metal salts and organometallic precursors in ILs.
Figure 2.2 TEM images of Rh and Ir NPs prepared from (a) [Rh(allyl)₃]/[C₄dmim][N(Tf)₂] (Stratton et al. [79] Reproduced with permission of Elsevier), (b) [Rh(acac)(CO)₂]/[N₆₆₆₆][Br] (Cimpeanu et al. [68] Reproduced with permission of Wiley), (c) RhCl₃/[C₄mim][BF₄] (Mu et al. [35] Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society), (d) [IrCl(cod)]₂/[C₄mim][PF₆] (Fonseca et al. [63] Reproduced with permission of Elsevier), (e) [IrCl(cod)]₂/[C₂mim][EtSO₄] (Bernardi et al. [66] Reproduced with permission of Elsevier), and (f) [Ir(cod)₂][BF₄]/[C₄mim][BF₄]
Scheme 2.2 Thermal decomposition of metal carbonyls in ionic liquids.
Figure 2.3 TEM images of Co NPs (a, b), Ir NPs (c, d), and Rh NPs (e, f) synthesized from [Co₂(CO)₈], [Ir₄(CO)₁₂], and [Rh₆(CO)₁₆] in ILs.
Figure 2.4 Rh NP-catalyzed hydrogenation of arenes in [C₄dmim][N(Tf)₂] with a phosphine-functionalized IL as additional ligand.
Scheme 2.3 Benzene or cyclohexene hydrogenation promoted by a supported Rh NPs/CDG catalyst under solvent-free conditions.
Scheme 2.4 (a) Hydroformylation of olefins catalyzed by Rh NPs and (b) hydroformylation promoted by Rh NPs dispersed in a thermoregulated mixture of IL/organic solvent [60, 93].
Scheme 2.5 Borylation reactions promoted by Ir NPs [94, 95].
Scheme 2.6 Fischer-Tropsch reaction promoted by Co NPs.

Chapter 3: Ni and Pt Nanoparticles

Figure 3.1 XRD patterns of (a) 2D-patterned Pt nanostructures synthesized by K₂PtCl₄ in 200 and 50 µl of EMIM.BF₄ and (b) Pt NPs synthesized by Pt₂(dba)₃ in BMI·PF₆.
Figure 3.2 X-ray diffraction pattern (a, b) and Rietveld's refinement (c, d) of the Pt NPs prepared in [C₄mim][PF₆] (a, c) and in [C₄mim][BF₄] ILs (b, d).
Figure 3.3 TEM micrograph (negative image, underfocus) of the Pt NPs in IL [C₄mim][PF₆] showing the contrast density fluctuation around the metal NPs.
Figure 3.4 (a) TEM image and (b) ED of Pt NPs.
Scheme 3.1 Schematic illustration of the proposed two-phase model: (a) corresponds to the correlation function and (b) to the interface distribution function. (a) L_m, the first minimum, is interpreted as the most probable distance between the center of gravity of a Pt(0) nanoparticle and its adjacent region. (b) L_M, the first maximum, can be estimated as disordered ionic-liquid-phase thickness. If X = BF₄, x = 2, and if X = PF₆, x = 3. (Scheeren et al. [8]. Reproduced with the permission of American Chemical Society.)
Figure 3.5 X-ray diffractogram of Ni NPs in IL [C₄mim][N(Tf)₂].
Figure 3.6 TEM micrographs and respective histograms showing the size distribution of Ni NPs prepared in ILs [C₄mim][N(Tf)₂] (a), [C₈mim][N(Tf)₂] (b), [C₁₀mim][N(Tf)₂] (c), [C₁₄mim][N(Tf)₂] (d), and [C₁₆mim][N(Tf)₂] (e).
Figure 3.7 TEM image of Ni NPs (5.4 ± 1.6 nm) synthesized from [Ni(COD)₂] in IL (5) and the histogram of the NP size distribution, constructed from the measurement of 50 NPs.
Figure 3.8 TEM image of Ni NPs synthesized from [Ni(COD)₂] in IL (1) (2.4 ± 0.8 nm) and the histogram of the NP size distribution (a) and IL (6) (3.4 ± 0.2 nm) and the histogram of the NP size distribution (b).
Figure 3.9 Results for aqueous-phase hydrogenation of cyclohexene with Ni NPs at different temperatures. Reaction conditions: 5 mmol cyclohexene, 0.05 mmol Ni NPs catalyst, 0.23 mmol [C₄m₂im][OAc], 2 ml water, P_H2 = 1.5 MPa, t = 5 h.
Figure 3.10 Recycling experiment with Ni NPs for the catalytic hydrogenation of cyclohexene. Reaction conditions: 5 mmol cyclohexene, 0.05 mmol Ni NPs catalyst, 0.23 mmol [C₄m₂im][OAc], 2 ml water, P_H2 = 1.5 MPa, t = 5 h, T = 60 °C.
Scheme 3.2 The micellar aggregates of block copolymer P123 and ILs stabilizing Ni NPs catalyze the selective hydrogenation of olefin in aqueous phase.

Chapter 4: Pd Nanoparticles for Coupling Reactions and Domino/Tandem Reactions

Figure 4.1 Homogeneous and heterogeneous reaction pathways in Pd-catalyzed reaction.
Figure 4.2 Effect of $c04-math-0001$ anion on the size of Pd NPs [43].
Figure 4.3 Synthesis of Pd NPs [44].
Figure 4.4 Effect of palladium precursor on the organization of Pd NPs [47].
Figure 4.5 Stabilization of Pd NPs with IL and NHC ligands [49].
Figure 4.6 Dispersion of Pd NPs under laser irradiation [53].
Figure 4.7 The Heck reaction.
Figure 4.8 Increase in the diameter of Pd NPs during the Heck reaction [59].
Figure 4.9 Pd(II) complex with benzothiazole ligand [30, 61].
Figure 4.10 Tandem triple Heck and Heck/Heck/Suzuki reactions [64].
Figure 4.11 Pd-catalyzed tandem synthesis of nabumetone [65].
Figure 4.12 The Heck reaction in [N₄₄₄₄]Br with different Pd precursors [68].
Figure 4.13 Dissolution of Pd NPs stabilized by [N₄₄₄₄]Br under Heck reaction conditions [71].
Figure 4.14 Dispersion of Pd NPs in the presence of PhI and PhI + [N₄₄₄₄]Br [42].
Figure 4.15 Pd-catalyzed Heck reaction performed in [C₂mim][MeHPO₃] [73].
Figure 4.16 The Suzuki reaction.
Figure 4.17 OH-functionalized amine [52].
Figure 4.18 The Stille coupling.
Figure 4.19 Imidazolium-based polymer and nitrile-functionalized IL used in the Stille coupling [54].
Figure 4.20 CN-functionalized ILs [80].
Figure 4.21 The Sonogashira coupling.
Figure 4.22 The Sonogashira coupling in ILs [81].
Figure 4.23 Bis-imidazole Pd complex [82].
Figure 4.24 Carbapalladacycle Pd complex [85].

Chapter 5: Soluble Pd Nanoparticles for Catalytic Hydrogenation

Scheme 5.1 Schematic representation of electrostatic stabilization of metal colloid particles. (Pârvulescu and Hardacre [3] Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.)
Figure 5.1 Examples of imidazolium-, pyrrolidinium-, and pyridinium-based ILs.
Figure 5.2 Examples of functionalized imidazolium cations and functional anions.
Scheme 5.2 Hydrogenation of alkynes with Pd(0)-NPs in IL. Schematic representation of electrostatic stabilization of metal colloid particles. (Venkatesan et al. [2] Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Scheme 5.3 Formation of PFIL-stabilized palladium nanoparticles in [C₄mmim][X].
Scheme 5.4 Preparation procedure for palladium nanoparticles entrapped into cross-linked polymeric ionic liquids.

Chapter 6: Au, Ag, and Cu Nanostructures

Figure 6.1 (a) Time-dependent UV-vis spectral monitoring of the oxidative etching of 2.5 mM Au NPs in P[6,6,6,14]Cl at 60 °C in air; plasmon band decay shown on right. (b) Demonstration of redispersion of larger Au NP aggregates into smaller Au NPs via oxidative etching, with TEM images of the initial large NPs (left) and redispersed NPs (right). (Banerjee et al. [43] Reproduced with the permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Figure 6.2 (A) UV-vis absorption spectra of Au nanorod solutions after reaction times of 2 (bottom), 5, 10, and 30 min (top), along with photographs of the particle solutions. The increase and red-shift of the longitudinal plasmon resonance (indicated by arrows) from λ = 725 nm (10 min) to λ = 749 nm (30 min) is characteristic for anisotropic particle growth. (B) Bright-field TEM image of Au nanorods in [C₂mim][EtSO₄] after different reaction times (t): (a)After t = 10 min, $c06-math-0001$ , and $c06-math-0002$ ; the inset shows seed nanocrystals $c06-math-0003$ . (b) After t = 30 min, $c06-math-0004$ , and $c06-math-0005$ . (Ryu et al. [48]. Reproduced with permission of Wiley.)
Figure 6.3 (a) TEM images of two Au NPs in IL droplets on a TEM grid during the fusion process. The insets are fast Fourier transform of the selected areas depicted as yellow rectangles in the corresponding images. Scale bars in the images are all 3 nm. (b) Final structure (136.1 s) of the coalesced Au NPs with its Fast Fourier Transform image. (c) Schematic illustration of the crystal showing the (111) twin plane. (Uematsu et al. [59]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.)
Figure 6.4 Grafting of imidazolium-based IL to graphene, followed by ion exchange with Au salts and reduction. (Mahyari et al. [83] Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Figure 6.5 TEM images of Ag NSs prepared at (a) [C₁₀mim][PF₆], (b) [C₁₀mim][N(Tf)₂], and (c) [C₁₀mim][BF₄]H₂O interfaces, respectively, after different reaction times: (i) 30 min, (ii) 1 h, (iii) 2 h, and (iv) 3 h. (Yao et al. [92]. Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Figure 6.6 Catalytic data for Ag NPs stabilized in tetraalkylphosphonium chloride ILs for the reduction of Eosin Y with NaBH₄. (a) The catalytic effect of the Ag NPs on the rate of reduction. (b) The first-order kinetics with and without Ag NPs present. (c, d) The effect of thermal sintering of the Ag NPs on the catalytic rates, followed by redispersion of the Ag NPs via oxidation in air followed by re-reduction of the Ag salts. (Banerjee et al. [95]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)
Figure 6.7 Production of superoxide and chloride ions from plasmonic excitation of Ag/AgCl NSs in a [C₈mim][Cl] IL. (Xu et al. [109]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.)
Figure 6.8 (a, b) TEM images of Cu NPs in the IL [C₄mim][PF₆]. Scale bars: 40 nm. (c) Particle size distribution of the as-prepared copper particles. (d) Photographs of pure [C₄mim][PF₆] (left) and of [C₄mim][PF₆] after Cu deposition (right). (e) UV–vis spectra of the copper colloids in [C₄mim][PF₆]. Inset: color change during air oxidation of the Cu particles. (Richter et al. [130]. Reproduced with permission of Wiley.)
Scheme 6.1 1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition reaction of phenyl azide and phenyl acetylene. (Reprinted from [136], Copyright (2009), with permission from Elsevier.)
Scheme 6.2 Condensation of thiazolidine-2,4-dione with aromatic aldehydes. (Reproduced with permission from [137]. Copyright 2008, Elsevier.)
Scheme 6.3 Cu NP-catalyzed Biginelli reaction [140].
Figure 6.9 CN coupling using tetraalkylphosphonium acetate IL-stabilized Cu₂O NPs. (Keßler et al. [142]. Reproduced with the permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)

Chapter 7: Bimetallic Nanoparticles in Ionic Liquids: Synthesis and Catalytic Applications

Figure 7.1 Structural arrangements for bimetallic nanoparticles (black and red spheres represent atoms of two different elements).
Figure 7.2 Publications per year containing the words “metallic or bimetallic, nanoparticles, and catalysis” in the title, keywords, or abstract.
Scheme 7.1 Co-decomposition of Ru(0) and Cu(I) organometallic precursors to give RuCu core-shell NPs [41, 42].
Figure 7.3 Schematic representation of the atomic rearrangement induced during the H₂/H₂S treatment of bimetallic CoPt₃@Pt-like NPs (left). XPS spectra (right) of these NPs before (black trace) and after hydrogenation followed by sulfidation (grey trace).
Figure 7.4 A schematic representation for the synthesis of Pd₄Au NPs in a H₂O/Triton X-100/[C₄mim]⁺[PF₆]⁻ microemulsion from (NH₄)₂[PdCl₆] and H[AuCl₄]·4H₂O.
Figure 7.5 Pathway to synthesize supported bimetallic PdAu NPs on cross-linked polymer.
Scheme 7.2 Co-decomposition of Cu and Zn amidinates under microwave irradiation.
Figure 7.6 SEM (a–d; scale bar: 200 nm) and enlarged SEM (e–h; scale bar: 100 nm) images for Pt_xCu_y alloys, including the corresponding histograms of the size distributions: Pt₂₃Cu₇₇ (a,e); Pt₅₁Cu₄₉ (b,f); Pt₇₄Cu₂₆ (c,g); and Pt₈₃Cu₁₇ (d,h).
Figure 7.7 Plausible mechanism of metallic nanoparticle formation by sputter deposition of metal atoms or clusters into an ionic liquid phase.
Figure 7.8 Hydrogenation of unsaturated substrates catalyzed by Pd_yAu_x NPs stabilized by PVP in [C₄mim]⁺[PF₆]⁻ (a). TOFs for different Au/Pd bimetallic systems (b).
Scheme 7.3 Hydrogenation/dehalogenation reactions catalyzed by AuPd-based nanoparticles.
Scheme 7.4 Oxidation of cis-cyclooctene catalyzed by PdAu BMNPs [84].
Figure 7.9 Schematic illustration for PdAu alloy NPs giving high activity for cis-cyclooctene oxidation (Pd/Au ratio = 1/2) (left) and high activity for 4-nitrophenol reduction (Pd/Au ratio = 1/1) (right) depending on the relative metal composition.

Chapter 8: Synthesis and Application of Metal Nanoparticle Catalysts in Ionic Liquid Media using Metal Carbonyl Complexes as Precursors

Figure 8.1 Schematic representation of the increase in surface area (a) with fragmentation of a macroscopic object into nanoobjects or the increase of surface atoms (b) relative to inner atoms with decreasing size of a nanoparticle [12].
Figure 8.2 Stabilization of metal nanoparticles (M-NPs) in ionic liquids (ILs) (middle) or through protective ligands (right).
Figure 8.3 Cations and anions of common ILs. [C₄mim]⁺ is also abbreviated as [BMIm]⁺, [BMI]⁺ or [C₄C₁Im]⁺; [CF₃SO₃]⁻ as [OTf]⁻.
Figure 8.4 Molecular structures for the binary metal carbonyl examples. Rh₆(CO)₁₆ where the Rh₆ atoms form an octahedra is not shown.
Figure 8.5 Frontier orbital section of the qualitative molecular orbital (MO) diagram for the OC → metal donor σ-bond and the M → CO π-acceptor or back bond in the metal-carbonyl bond (HOMO , highest occupied molecular orbital; LUMO, lowest unoccupied molecular orbital). For clarity only one of the M → CO π-bonds is depicted.
Figure 8.6 Synthesis and stabilization of metal nanoparticles from metal carbonyl precursors in ionic liquids.
Figure 8.7 Examples of transmission electron microscopy, TEM images of metal nanoparticles obtained from metal carbonyl precursors in ionic liquids. (a) Os-NPs from Os₃(CO)₁₂ by MWI in [C₄mim][BF₄], Ø 2.5 ± 0.4 nm and (b) Ru-NPs from Ru₃(CO)₁₂ by thermal decomposition in [C₄mim][N(Tf)₂], Ø 2.0 ± 0.5 nm [36]. Image in (a) from [36] (Figure S14 in Supp. Info.). Image in (b) unpublished work by Krämer, Redel, Thomann and Janiak.
Figure 8.17 Conversion of glucose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) by Cr-NPs (obtained from Cr(CO)₆ in IL) [99].
Figure 8.8 Raman spectra of W(CO)₆ and Mn₂(CO)₁₀ in [C₄mim][BF₄] before and after microwave irradiation (MWI for 3 min at 10 W). Boxes highlight the characteristic carbonyl and metal carbonyl bands. [BMIm]⁺ = [C₄mim]⁺.
Figure 8.9 Correlation between the molecular volume of the ionic liquid anion and the observed W (a) and Rh (b) nanoparticle diameter with standard deviations as error bars [42, 98, 100].
Figure 8.16 Cyclohexenone hydrogenation mostly to cyclohexanone with Fe-, Ru-, or FeRu-NPs obtained from (mixtures of) Fe₂(CO)₉ and Ru₃(CO)₁₂ in IL [102].
Figure 8.13 Schematic hydrogenation reaction of cyclohexene to cyclohexane with Ru-, Rh-, and Ir-NPs/IL dispersions (from metal carbonyls, see above) [42, 55, 98]. The activity or turnover frequency (TOF) increases with the hydrogenation run (reuse). The hydrogenation reaction with Ru was run at 90 °C and 10 bar H₂ to 95% conversion [55]. It was suggested that this activity rise with each recycle could be due to surface restructuring and/or the formation of active Ru-N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) [103] surface species [104]. Rh/[C₄mim][BF₄] catalyst yielded an activity of 400 mol product × (mol Rh)⁻¹ × h⁻¹ with quantitative conversion (75 °C, 4 bar H₂, 2.5 h). With the homologous Ir/[C₄mim][BF₄] catalyst even higher activities up to 1900 mol cyclohexane × (mol Ir)⁻¹ × h⁻¹ could be obtained under the same conditions owing to a shorter reaction time of 1 h for near quantitative conversion [55].
Figure 8.11 TEM images of Ru-NPs (a), Rh-NPs (b), and Ir-NPs (c) supported on thermally reduced graphite oxide obtained upon decomposition of Ru₃(CO)₁₂, Rh₆(CO)₁₆, and Ir₄(CO)₁₂, respectively, by means of microwave irradiation in [C₄mim][BF₄] [105].
Figure 8.12 Rh-NP deposition on a Teflon-coated magnetic stirring bar from an IL dispersion [110].
Figure 8.15 Schematic benzene or cyclohexene hydrogenation by Rh-NPs deposited on a Teflon-coated magnetic stirring bar and the activity plot over 10 consecutive runs for cyclohexene hydrogenation (conditions 6.8 mmol cyclohexene, 3.1 × 10⁻⁷ mol Rh, molar ratio ∼22 000; 75 °C, 4 bar H₂) [110].
Figure 8.14 Schematic hydrogenation reaction of benzene or cyclohexene to cyclohexane with Ru-, Rh-, or Ir-NP/TRGO under organic-solvent-free conditions. (a) The constant activities for cyclohexene hydrogenation over 10 consecutive runs were achieved at 4 bar H₂ and 75 °C with 0.01 mol cyclohexene, 1.89 × 10⁻⁵ mol Ru (molar substrate-to-metal ratio 530) or 1.82 × 10⁻⁵ mol Rh (molar ratio 550) (11 mg M-NP/TRGO with 17.4 wt% Ru or 17.0 wt% Rh, respectively) [105]. (b) The increasing activity as TOF (= mol cyclohexane × (mol Ir)⁻¹ × h⁻¹) for the hydrogenation of benzene by Ir/TRGO was monitored at 100 °C, 10 bar of H₂ with 4.49 mmol benzene, 1 × 10⁻³ mmol Ir (molar benzene-to-Ir ratio 4490) (5.32 mg Ir/TRGO with 3.6% Ir) [106].
Figure 8.10 Schematic synthesis of transition metal nanoparticles supported on thermally reduced graphite oxide through microwave or electron beam irradiation [105, 106].

Chapter 9: Top-Down Synthesis Methods for Nanoscale Catalysts

Figure 9.1 (a) A typical DC-sputtering system used for RTIL/metal sputtering. (Inset) Schematic illustration of physical ejection of surface atoms and/or small metal clusters by bombardment with energetic gaseous ions. (b) Binary targets composed of M_A and M_B metal plates. The f_MA values indicate the area fraction of M_A plates in targets.
Figure 9.2 TEM images of Au nanoparticles sputter-deposited in [C₂mim][BF₄] (a) and [N₁₁₁₃][N(Tf)₂] (b).
Figure 9.3 Absorption spectra of Au-sputter-deposited [C₂mim][BF₄]. The numbers in the Figure represent the sputtering time in minutes. The concentration of deposited Au linearly increased with an increase in the sputtering time as shown in the inset.
Figure 9.4 TEM images of (a) core-shell-structured In@In₂O₃ nanoparticles sputter-deposited in [C₂mim][BF₄] and (b) hollow In₂O₃ particles obtained by heat treatment of In@In₂O₃ in the RTIL at 523 K in air. (c) Schematic illustration of hollow particle formation via the Kirkendall effect.
Figure 9.5 (a) Size distribution of Au nanoparticles sputter-deposited in [C₄mim][BF₄] at various temperatures. (b) The relationship between the peak diameter of Au particles and the value of T/η of [C₄mim][BF₄].
Figure 9.6 Schematic illustrations of the sputter deposition mechanisms (a) for Au particles uniformly dispersed in the [C₂mim][BF₄] solution phase and (b) for an Au nanoparticle monolayer on the surface of [HO-C₂mim][BF₄].
Figure 9.7 Dependences of the average size and the chemical composition of AuPd particles on the area fraction of Au plates in binary AuPd targets (f_Au).
Figure 9.8 Representative TEM images of sputter-deposited Au particles (a) and Au@In₂O₃ (b) in [C₂mim][BF₄] and those of heat-treated particles of bare Au (d) and Au@In₂O₃ (e). The heat treatment of the solutions was conducted at 250 °C for 1 h. Panels (c) and (f) show high-magnification HAADF-STEM images of particles in (b) and (e), respectively.
Figure 9.9 Schematic illustration of the formation of Au@In₂O₃ particles via oxidation of In metal sputter-deposited on Au nanoparticle cores.
Figure 9.10 (a) A top view photograph of an Au nanoparticle monolayer deposited on the [HO-C₂mim][BF₄] solution surface via RTIL/metal sputtering. (b) A photograph of transfer of half of the Au film deposited on [HO-C₂mim][BF₄] onto a glass plate by a horizontal lift-off method. (c) An AFM image of an Au nanoparticle monolayer transferred onto the HOPG surface.
Figure 9.11 (a) A TEM image of Pt nanoparticle-loaded carbon nanotubes prepared with heat treatment at 573 K in [N₁₁₁₃][N(Tf)₂]. (b) Schematic illustration of RTIL as a nanoglue between Pt nanoparticle and carbon nanotube.
Figure 9.12 (a) A schematic illustration of the immobilization of Au nanoparticles on Ag cubes in RTIL and the preparation of Au nanoframe structure through the chemical etching of Ag in the obtained composites. (b) A SEM image of Au nanoparticle-deposited Ag cubes. (Inset) SEM image of Au nanoframe prepared by the chemical etching of Ag. The bar in each image represents the scale of 250 nm.
Figure 9.13 Photoluminescence spectra of CdTe nanoparticles (a) with and (b) without Au nanoparticle layers. The number in the Figure represents the accumulation number, n, of (PSS/PDDA)_n as a polymer spacer. The structure of each composite film is shown beside the corresponding spectra.
Figure 9.14 Changes in ECSA of Pt-loaded powders (open circles) and Pt@In₂O₃-loaded carbon powders (solid circles) during the accelerated durability test of fuel cells.
Figure 9.15 (a) Cyclic voltammograms for ethanol oxidation with AuPd nanoparticle-immobilized HOPG electrodes (solid lines, the positive potential scan; dotted lines, the negative potential scan). The numbers in the panel represent the value of f_Au used for sputter deposition. (b) Relationship between the peak current density observed in the positive potential scan and f_Au.
Figure 9.16 A schematic illustration of rotary apparatus for thermal vapor deposition of metal onto cooled solutions.
Figure 9.17 Schematic illustrations of laser ablation experiments. A laser light focused on an Au plate surface located inside (a) or outside (b) RTIL.
Figure 9.18 TEM images of flowerlike Au nanoparticles obtained by laser ablation inside [C₄mim][N(CN)₂].
Figure 9.19 (a) A schematic illustration of KBr growth in RTIL droplets and (b) a tapping-mode AFM topography of a (111)-oriented KBr island grown with RTIL flux.
Figure 9.20 An optical microscope image (a) and an AFM image (10 µm × 10 µm) (b) of a pentacene single crystal obtained under the growth temperature of 383 K. (c) A height profile of the crystal surface in the AFM image of panel (b).

Chapter 10: Electrochemical Preparation of Metal Nanoparticles in Ionic Liquids

Figure 10.1 Terrace–step–kink (TSK) model for electrodeposition of metals. The solvent molecules filling the space over the metal electrode are not illustrated in this figure.
Figure 10.2 Concentration distribution changing with the elapse of time, t, after imposition of an overpotential. C is the concentration of the metal species, C^* is the bulk concentration of the metal species, and x is the distance from the electrode surface. The diffusion coefficient of the metal species is assumed to be 1 × 10⁻⁵ cm² s⁻¹.
Figure 10.3 Cyclic voltammogram of a glassy carbon electrode in [C₄mPyr][N(Tf)₂] containing 100 mM Ag[N(Tf)₂] at 25 °C. Scan rate: 10 mV s⁻¹. (Reproduced from [31] with permission from The Electrochemical Society.)
Figure 10.4 SEM images of the electrodeposits obtained on a glassy carbon electrode in [C₄mPyr][N(Tf)₂] containing 100 mM Ag[N(Tf)₂] at (a) −0.25, (b) −0.40, (c) −0.80, (d) −1.20, and (e) −1.60 V. Temperature: 25 °C. Electric charge: 7.07 C cm⁻². (Reproduced from [31] with permission from The Electrochemical Society.)
Figure 10.5 Schematic illustrations of electric double layer in (a) aqueous solution (with specifically adsorbed anions), (b) ionic liquids (E = E_PZC), and (c) ionic liquids (E < E_PZC).
Figure 10.6 TEM images of silver nanoparticles prepared in (a) [C₄mPyr][N(Tf)₂] containing 100 mM Ag[N(Tf)₂], (b) [C₄mim][N(Tf)₂] containing 67 mM Ag[N(Tf)₂], (c) [C₂mim][N(Tf)₂] containing 50 mM Ag[N(Tf)₂], and (d) [C₄mim][CF₃SO₃] containing 100 mM Ag[CF₃SO₃]. (Reproduced from [31] with permission from The Electrochemical Society.)
Figure 10.7 Cyclic voltammograms of a Pt electrode in [C₄mPyr][N(Tf)₂] containing (a) 50 mM Fe[N(Tf)₂]₂ [62], (b) 100 mM Co[N(Tf)₂]₂ [75], and (c) 50 mM Ni[N(Tf)₂]₂ [86] at room temperature. Scan rate: 100 mV s⁻¹. (Reproduced from [75] with permission from The Electrochemical Society. Reprinted from [86] with permission from Elsevier.)
Figure 10.8 TEM images of nanoparticles of (a) Fe (50 mM Fe[N(Tf)₂]₂ at −2.6 V) [33], (b) Co (10 mM Co[N(Tf)₂]₂ at −2.0 V) [34], and (c) Ni (50 mM Ni[N(Tf)₂]₂ at −2.6 V) [33] prepared in [C₄mPyr][N(Tf)₂] at room temperature. (Reproduced from [33] with permission from The Electrochemical Society. Reproduced from [34] with permission from The Electrochemical Society of Japan.)
Figure 10.9 Cyclic voltammograms of a glassy carbon electrode in [C₄mPyr][N(Tf)₂] containing 10 mM [PdCl₄]²⁻ and [PdBr₄]²⁻ at 25 °C. Scan rate: 50 mV s⁻¹. (Reproduced from [92] with the permission from Maney Publications.)
Figure 10.10 TEM image of Pd nanoparticles prepared by potentiostatic cathodic reduction on a carbon felt electrode in [C₄mPyr][N(Tf)₂] containing 10 mM [PdBr₄]²⁻ at −2.2 V (25 °C). The inset shows the electron diffraction diagram of a Pd nanoparticle. (Reproduced from [38] with the permission from Elsevier.)
Figure 10.11 Cyclic voltammogram of a glassy carbon electrode in [C₄mPyr][N(Tf)₂] containing 5 mM Pd(acac)₂ at 25 °C. Scan rate: 50 mV s⁻¹. (Reproduced from [37] with the permission from Elsevier.)
Figure 10.12 TEM image of Pd nanoparticles prepared by potentiostatic cathodic reduction on a glassy carbon electrode in [C₄mPyr][N(Tf)₂] containing 5 mM Pd(acac)₂ at −2.0 V (25 °C). The inset shows the electron diffraction diagram of a Pd nanoparticle. (Reproduced from [37] with the permission from Elsevier.)
Figure 10.13 Cyclic voltammogram of a glassy carbon electrode in [C₄mPyr][N(Tf)₂] containing 10 mM [AuBr₄]⁻ at 25 °C. Scan rate: 50 mV s⁻¹. (Reproduced from [36] with permission from The Electrochemical Society.)
Figure 10.14 TEM image of Au nanoparticles prepared by potentiostatic cathodic reduction on a glassy carbon electrode in [C₄mPyr][N(Tf)₂] containing 10 mM [AuBr₂]⁻ at −2.5 V (25 °C). The inset shows the electron diffraction diagram of a Au nanoparticle. (Reproduced from [36] with permission from The Electrochemical Society.)
Figure 10.15 Cyclic voltammogram of a glassy carbon electrode in [C₄mPyr][N(Tf)₂] containing 10 mM [PtBr₆]²⁻ at 25 °C. Scan rate: 50 mV s⁻¹. (Reproduced from [35] with permission from The Electrochemical Society.)
Figure 10.16 TEM image of Pt nanoparticles prepared by potentiostatic cathodic reduction on a glassy carbon electrode in [C₄mPyr][N(Tf)₂] containing 10 mM [PtBr₄]²⁻ at −2.6 V (25 °C). The inset shows the electron diffraction diagram of a Pt nanoparticle. (Reproduced from [35] with permission from The Electrochemical Society.)
Figure 10.17 TEM images of carbon black immersed in (a) [C₄mPyr][N(Tf)₂] and (b) [C₄mPyr][N(Tf)₂] containing Pt nanoparticles at 200 °C for 24 h. (Reproduced from [35] with permission from The Electrochemical Society.)

Chapter 11: Tailoring Biomass Conversions using Ionic Liquid Immobilized Metal Nanoparticles

Scheme 11.1 Mechanism for dissolving cellobiose due to reversible binding agent [33].
Scheme 11.2 Products obtained during the hydrogenation of 4-(2-furyl)-3-butene-2-one which is derived from furfural [37].
Scheme 11.3 Altering selectivity of the Ru@SILP catalyic system by tailoring the acidity [38].
Scheme 11.4 Reaction pathway for hydrodeoxygenation of lignin-based phenol [40].
Scheme 11.5 Ionic liquids used in the exercise [40].
Scheme 11.6 Poly-N-donor ligands used as additional stabilizer [41].
Scheme 11.7 Outline of the need for selective partial hydrogenation of FAME.
Scheme 11.8 Composition of fatty acids before and after hydrogenation using Pd in [C₄mim]BF₄ [43].
Scheme 11.9 Hydrogenolysis of glycerol to 1,2-propanediol over RuCu supported on IL-modified bentonite [46].
Scheme 11.10 Selective hydrogenation of citral over SCILL system [48].

Chapter 12: Nanoparticles on Supported Ionic Liquid Phases – Opportunities for Application in Catalysis

Figure 12.1 Nanoparticles stabilized by physisorbed and chemisorbed SILPs (NPs@SILPs).
Scheme 12.1 Synthetic strategies toward the preparation of chemisorbed SILPs (S = support material).
Figure 12.2 Chemisorbed SILP systems used in the preparation of NP@SILP systems.
Figure 12.3 Selected examples of SILPs used in CC coupling reactions catalyzed by NPs@SILPs.
Figure 12.4 Selected examples of SILPs used in hydrogenation reactions catalyzed by NPs@SILPs.
Scheme 12.2 Selective hydrogenation of biomass-derived tris(5-methylfuran-2-yl)-methane (22) using PdNPs@SILP19 [87].
Scheme 12.3 Reaction pathway for the deoxygenation of phenol to cyclohexane using bifunctional catalysts composed of Ru NPs and an acidic IL [97, 98].
Scheme 12.4 Synthetic pathway for the selective deoxygenation of 4-(2-tetrahydrofuryl)-2-butanol (23) toward different classes of value-added chemicals, cyclic ethers (23a), primary alcohols (23b), and aliphatic ethers (23c), catalyzed by RuNPs@SILP21 [99].

Chapter 13: Photovoltaic, Photocatalytic Application, and Water Splitting

Figure 13.1 Schematic overview of a dye-sensitized solar cell [15]. (Hagfeldt et al. [15]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.)
Figure 13.2 (a) Photographs of imidazolium melts and their mixtures at room temperature. The samples from left to right are [C₆mim][I], [C₄mim][I], [C₃mim][I], [C₂mim][I], [C₁mim][I], [C₁mim][I]/[C₂mim][I] (1/1, molar ratio), 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium iodide ([Amim][I]), [C₁mim][I]/[C₂mim][I]/[Amim][I] (1/1/1, molar ratio), respectively. All samples were dried at 80 °C under a vacuum of ∼3 Torr for 8 h. (b) Schematic coupling transport mechanism of triiodide in IL electrolytes with a high iodide packing density, where the red, blue, and green balls represent the iodide, triiodide, and encountering complex, respectively [25]. (Cao et al. [25]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.)
Scheme 13.1 Chemical structures of (a) 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium iodides and (b) gelator [17].
Figure 13.3 (a) Plots of V_oc, J_sc, η, FF versus ionic liquid electrolytes and ionic nanoparticle gel electrolytes. A white circle and a dashed line show the value of the DSCs with ionic liquid electrolytes alone (n = 3). (b) Scheme of [C₂mim][N(Tf)₂] chemical structure. (c) Picture of the ionic nanocomposite gel containing MWCNTs. These were ground with [C₂mim][N(Tf)₂] in an agate mortar and then centrifuged [28]. (d) Photographic images of graphene-ionic liquid electrolytes with graphene concentration increasing from right to left [29]. (Usui et al. [28]. Reproduced with the permission of Elsevier.)
Figure 13.4 Photoinduced formation mechanism of an electron–hole pair in a semiconductor with the presence of water pollutant (P) [38]. (Chong et al. [38]. Reproduced with the permission of Elsevier.)
Figure 13.5 Photocatalytic oxidative desulfurization process of DBT [45]. (Wang et al. [45]. Reproduced with the permission of American Chemical Society.)
Figure 13.6 Proposed mechanism showing the catalytic role of IL on the surface of BiOI [50]. (Wang et al. [50]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.)
Figure 13.7 Schematic illustration of proposed photoelectrochemical mechanism for photolyzed acetochlor oxidation in TiO₂–P3HT–IL modified GCE [52]. (Jin et al. [52]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)
Figure 13.8 Schematic illustration of (a) photocatalytic mechanism of WS reaction for H₂ and O₂ production using an n-type semiconductor, (b) PEC WS reaction for H₂ and O₂, and (c) working principle of the PEC WS reaction with the n-type semiconductor photoanode.
Figure 13.9 (a) Schematic illustration showing the growth of DW-TiO₂ NTs on Ti foil using the sonoelectrochemical anodization process in IL media. (b) Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) surface image of DW-TiO₂ NTs. (c) Photoelectrochemical experimental data plot of annealed SW-TiO₂ NTs and DW-TiO₂ NTs under global AM1.5 in 1 M KOH electrolyte [65]. (d) Schematic diagram of DW-TiO₂ NT formation during anodization in the [NH₄][BF₄]-based electrolyte [66]. (John et al. [65]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.)
Figure 13.10 (a) Schematic illustration showing the stepwise synthetic procedure of IL-TiO₂ and (b) linear sweep voltammograms of bare TiO₂ and IL-TiO₂ under 380 nm irradiation at a scan rate of 1 mV s⁻¹ under chopped light. (c) A proposed mechanism for understanding enhanced PEC water oxidation at the IL-TiO₂ photoelectrode [73]. (Jing et al. [73]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)

List of Tables

Chapter 1: Fe, Ru, and Os Nanoparticles

Table 1.1 List of reactions catalyzed by Ru and Ru alloy NPs in ILs

Chapter 2: Co, Rh, and Ir Nanoparticles

Table 2.1 Synthesis of cobalt, rhodium, and iridium NPs in ILs.^a
Table 2.2 Examples of hydrogenation reactions catalyzed by Ir, Rh, and Co NPs in ILs.^a

Chapter 3: Ni and Pt Nanoparticles

Table 3.1 Pt NPs synthesized by decomposition or reduction of several metal precursors in ILs
Table 3.2 Hydrogenation reactions of Pt NPs from Pt₂(dba)₃ and PtO₂ in ILs [4m, 9].^a
Table 3.3 Ni NPs synthesized by decomposition of metal precursor in ILs
Table 3.4 Effect of different ILs on the catalytic performance for citral hydrogenation [24].^a
Table 3.5 Heck coupling reaction of aryl halide and olefins catalyzed by IL–Ni(II)–MNPs.^a

Chapter 5: Soluble Pd Nanoparticles for Catalytic Hydrogenation

Table 5.1 Reduction of PdNPs in ILs

Chapter 7: Bimetallic Nanoparticles in Ionic Liquids: Synthesis and Catalytic Applications

Table 7.1 Hydrogenation of 2-cyclohexenone catalyzed by FeRu NPs in [C₄mim]⁺[PF₆]⁻
Table 7.2 Hydrogenation of 4-nitrophenol catalyzed by AgPd NPs in [C₂OHmim]⁺[NTf₂]⁻.^a

Chapter 8: Synthesis and Application of Metal Nanoparticle Catalysts in Ionic Liquid Media using Metal Carbonyl Complexes as Precursors

Table 8.1 Binary metal carbonyls.^a
Table 8.2 Examples of metal nanoparticles formed from metal carbonyl precursors in ionic liquids

Chapter 9: Top-Down Synthesis Methods for Nanoscale Catalysts

Table 9.1 Average size and morphology of nanoparticles prepared by various top-down syntheses

Chapter 11: Tailoring Biomass Conversions using Ionic Liquid Immobilized Metal Nanoparticles

Table 11.1 Results of hydrogenation of 4-(2-furyl)-3-butene-2-one using Ru NPs in different ionic liquids [37]
Table 11.2 Results of hydrogenation of lignin model compounds with different stabilizing ligands [41]

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List of Contributors

Abhinandan Banerjee
University of Calgary
NanoScience Program
2500 University Drive NW
Calgary, AB T2N 1N4
Canada

Nathaniel Boyce
McGill University
Department of Chemistry
Centre for Green Chemistry and Catalysis
801 Sherbrooke Street West
Montreal, QC H3A 0B8
Canada

Isabelle Favier
Université de Toulouse 3 – Paul Sabatier
Laboratoire Hétérochimie Fondamentale et Appliquée
UMR CNRS 5069
118 route de Narbonne
31062 Toulouse Cedex 9
France

Adriano F. Feil
PUCRS
Centro Interdisciplinar de Nanociência e Micro-Nanotecnologia
Av. Ipiranga, 6681
CEP 90619-900, Porto Alegre
RS
Brazil

Yuting Feng
McGill University
Department of Chemistry
Centre for Green Chemistry and Catalysis
801 Sherbrooke Street West
Montreal, QC H3A 0B8
Canada

Montserrat Gómez
Université de Toulouse 3 – Paul Sabatier
Laboratoire Hétérochimie Fondamentale et Appliquée
UMR CNRS 5069
118 route de Narbonne
31062 Toulouse Cedex 9
France

Renato V. Gonçalves
Universidade de São Paulo
Instituto de Física de São Carlos
13560-970, São Carlos
SP
Brazil

Zhenshan Hou
East China University of Science and Technology
School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials
Meilong Road 130
Xuhui District
Shanghai 200237
China

Christoph Janiak
Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf
Institut für Anorganische Chemie und Strukturchemie
Universitätsstrasse 1
40225 Düsseldorf
Germany

Tatsuya Kameyama
Nagoya University
Department of Crystalline Materials Science
Graduate School of Engineering
Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku
Nagoya 464-8603
Japan

Yasushi Katayama
Keio University
Department of Applied Chemistry
Faculty of Science and Technology
3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Kohoku-ku
Yokohama
Kanagawa 223-8522
Japan

Madhu Kaushik
McGill University
Department of Chemistry
Centre for Green Chemistry and Catalysis
801 Sherbrooke Street West
Montreal, QC H3A 0B8
Canada

Susumu Kuwabata
Osaka University
Department of Applied Chemistry
Graduate School of Engineering
2-1 Yamada-oka
Suita, Osaka 565-0871
Japan

Walter Leitner
RWTH Aachen University
Institut für Technische und Makromolekulare Chemie
Worringerweg 2
52074 Aachen
Germany

and

Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung
45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr
Germany

Kylie L. Luska
RWTH Aachen University
Institut für Technische und Makromolekulare Chemie
Worringerweg 2
52074 Aachen
Germany

Raquel Marcos Esteban
Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf
Institut für Anorganische Chemie und Strukturchemie
Universitätsstrasse 1
40225 Düsseldorf
Germany

Pedro Migowski
RWTH Aachen University
Institut für Technische und Makromolekulare Chemie
Worringerweg 2
52074 Aachen
Germany

Audrey Moores
McGill University
Department of Chemistry
Centre for Green Chemistry and Catalysis
801 Sherbrooke Street West
Montreal, QC H3A 0B8
Canada

Srinidhi Narayanan
National University of Singapore
Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
4 Engineering Drive 4
Blk E5, #02-37
Singapore 117585
Singapore

Muhammad I. Qadir
UFRGS
Instituto de Química
Avenida Bento Gonçalves
9500, Agronomia
91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS
Brazil

Jackson D. Scholten
UFRGS
Departamento de Química Inorgânica
Instituto de Química
Avenida Bento Gonçalves
9500, Agronomia
91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS
Brazil

Robert W. J. Scott
University of Saskatchewan
Department of Chemistry
110 Science Place
Saskatoon, SK S7N 5C9
Canada

Emmanuelle Teuma
Université de Toulouse 3 – Paul Sabatier
Laboratoire Hétérochimie Fondamentale et Appliquée
UMR CNRS 5069
118 route de Narbonne
31062 Toulouse Cedex 9
France

Tsukasa Torimoto
Nagoya University
Department of Crystalline Materials Science
Graduate School of Engineering
Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku
Nagoya 464-8603
Japan

Anna M. Trzeciak
University of Wrocław
Department of Inorganic Chemistry
Faculty of Chemistry
14 Fryderyka Joliot-Curie
50-383 Wrocław
Poland

Carla Weber Scheeren
Federal University of Rio Grande
School of Chemistry and Food
Rua Barão do Caí, 125 sala 09
Santo Antônio da Patrulha
RS 95500000
Brazil

Heberton Wender
Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS)
Instituto de Física
Laboratório de Nanomateriais e Nanotecnologia Aplicada (LNNA) Av. Costa e Silva s/n
CEP 79070-900, Campo Grande
MS
Brazil

Ning Yan
National University of Singapore
Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
4 Engineering Drive 4
Blk E5, #02-37
Singapore 117585
Singapore

Jiaguang Zhang
National University of Singapore
Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
4 Engineering Drive 4
Blk E5, #02-37
Singapore 117585
Singapore

Ran Zhang
East China University of Science and Technology
School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials
Meilong Road 130
Xuhui District
Shanghai 200237
China