<p>Preface xiii</p> <p><b>1 Modified Dendrimer Nanoparticles for Effective and Sustainable Recovery of Rare Earth Element from Acid Rock Drainage 1<br /></b><i>Anyik John Leo, Innocentia Gugulethu Erdogan, Frans B. Waanders, Martin Mkandawire, Thabo T.I Nkambule, Bhekie B. Mamba and Elvis Fosso-Kankeu</i></p> <p>1.1 Introduction 2</p> <p>1.2 Rare-Earth Element Occurrence in Acid Mine Drainage 10</p> <p>1.2.1 Acid Mine Drainage Generation and Effects 10</p> <p>1.2.2 Rare-Earth Elements and Their Importance 15</p> <p>1.2.3 Classical AMD Remediation and Treatment Methods 16</p> <p>1.3 Dendrimer as Extraction Agent of Rare Earth Element in AMD 17</p> <p>1.3.1 Poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) Dendrimers 19</p> <p>1.3.2 Principle REE Extraction Using PAMAM 19</p> <p>1.4 Designed a Recovery System for REE from AMD 21</p> <p>1.4.1 Process Overview 21</p> <p>1.4.2 Components and Their Functions 22</p> <p>1.4.2.1 Reactor 1 – Collection Tank 22</p> <p>1.4.2.2 Reactor 2 – Mixing Tank 22</p> <p>1.4.2.3 Reactor 3 – Separation Tank 23</p> <p>1.4.2.4 Reactor 4 – Recovery of REEs Metals 23</p> <p>1.5 Challenges and Opportunities for the Future of Metal Mining 24</p> <p>1.6 Conclusion 25</p> <p>Acknowledgment 26</p> <p>References 26</p> <p><b>2 Cellulose-Based Nanomaterials for Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage-Contaminated Waters 33</b><b><br /> </b><i>Thato M. Masilompane, Hlanganani Tutu and Anita Etale</i></p> <p>2.1 Introduction 34</p> <p>2.2 Cellulose 36</p> <p>2.2.1 Structure and Properties of Cellulose 36</p> <p>2.2.2 Nanocellulose 37</p> <p>2.3 Synthesis of CNFs and CNCs 39</p> <p>2.3.1 Synthesis of CNFs 39</p> <p>2.3.2 Synthesis of CNCs Through Acid Hydrolysis 43</p> <p>2.3.3 Cationization for Anion Uptake 45</p> <p>2.3.4 Application of CNF and CNC Nanocomposite in Metal and Anion Removal 46</p> <p>2.4 Cellulose Composites 50</p> <p>2.4.1 Cellulose/Chitosan Nanocomposites 50</p> <p>2.4.2 Cellulose/Metal Oxide Nanoparticles: ZnO, Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles, Nano Zero-Valent Iron 51</p> <p>2.5 Valorization of AMD-Contaminated Water and the Possible Uses of Recovered Elements 53</p> <p>2.5.1 Sludge from AMD 53</p> <p>2.5.1.1 Removal of Heavy Metals Using Sludge 54</p> <p>2.5.1.2 Sludge as a Fertilizer 55</p> <p>2.5.1.3 Sludge Used in Construction Material 55</p> <p>2.5.2 Resource Recovery 56</p> <p>2.6 Conclusion 56</p> <p>References 57</p> <p><b>3 Application of Nanomaterials for Remediation of Pollutants from Mine Water Effluents 67</b><b><br /> </b><i>Ephraim Vunain</i></p> <p>3.1 Introduction 68</p> <p>3.1.1 Mine Water Chemistry 69</p> <p>3.2 Existing Treatment Methods of Mine Water and Their Limitations 70</p> <p>3.3 Nanoremediation of Mine Water 71</p> <p>3.4 Application of Nanomaterials for Mine Water Remediation 73</p> <p>3.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 81</p> <p>References 81<br /> <b><br /> <b>4 Application of Nanofiltration in Mine-Influenced Water Treatment: A Review with a Focus on South Africa 91</b><br /> </b><i>Frédéric Jules Doucet, Gloria Dube, Sameera Mohamed, Sisanda Gcasamba, Henk Coetzee and Viswanath Ravi Kumar Vadapalli</i></p> <p>Abbreviations 92</p> <p>4.1 Introduction 93</p> <p>4.1.1 Mine-Influenced Water 93</p> <p>4.1.1.1 Occurrence and Types of Mine-Influenced Water 93</p> <p>4.1.1.2 Mine-Influenced Water Treatment 94</p> <p>4.1.2 Reuse of Mine-Influenced Water 96</p> <p>4.2 Nanofiltration for Mine-Influenced Water Treatment 97</p> <p>4.2.1 Introduction—Membrane Separation Technologies 97</p> <p>4.2.2 Nanofiltration 100</p> <p>4.2.2.1 Background and Benefits 100</p> <p>4.2.2.2 Types and Performances of Nanofiltration Membranes 101</p> <p>4.2.2.3 Limitations and Challenges 124</p> <p>4.2.2.4 Nanocomposite Membranes and Nanofillers 127</p> <p>4.2.3 Membrane Distillation 128</p> <p>4.3 Large-Scale Operations Using Nanofiltration or Reverse Osmosis 128</p> <p>4.3.1 Integration of Membrane and Conventional Treatment Approaches 128</p> <p>4.3.2 Pilot-Scale Case Studies 129</p> <p>4.3.3 Challenges of Scale-Up and Commercialization 133</p> <p>4.3.3.1 Fouling 133</p> <p>4.3.3.2 Membrane Selection 133</p> <p>4.3.3.3 Modeling and Simulation of NF Systems 134</p> <p>4.3.3.4 Cost Estimates 135</p> <p>4.3.3.5 Environmental Considerations 135</p> <p>4.4 Some Perspectives and Research Directions 136</p> <p>References 137</p> <p><b>5 Recovery of Gold from Thiosulfate Leaching Solutions with Magnetic Nanoparticles 153<br /> </b><i>N.D. Ilankoon and C. Aldrich</i></p> <p>Abbreviations 153</p> <p>5.1 Introduction 154</p> <p>5.2 Recovery of Precious Metals with Magnetic Nanohydrometallurgy 156</p> <p>5.2.1 Superparamagnetism 157</p> <p>5.2.2 Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 157</p> <p>5.2.3 Selective Adsorption 159</p> <p>5.2.4 Adsorption Mechanisms 162</p> <p>5.2.5 Recovery of Gold 162</p> <p>5.2.6 Recovery of Silver 164</p> <p>5.2.7 Recovery of PGMs 165</p> <p>5.3 Synthesis and Functionalization of Magnetic Nanoparticles 166</p> <p>5.4 Characterization of Magnetic Nanoparticles 170</p> <p>5.5 Recovery of Gold from Thiosulfate Leaching Solutions 175</p> <p>5.5.1 Preparation of PEI-MNPs 176</p> <p>5.5.2 Application of PEI-MNPs for Gold Adsorption from Synthetic Leaching Solutions 177</p> <p>5.5.3 Application of PEI-MNPs for Gold Adsorption from Ore Leachates 180</p> <p>5.6 Gold Elution and Reuse of the Adsorbent 181</p> <p>5.7 Industrial Scale-Up and Challenges 182</p> <p>5.7.1 High Gradient Magnetic Separation 182</p> <p>5.7.2 Nanoparticle Aggregation and Agglomeration 183</p> <p>5.7.3 Nanoparticle Dissolution 185</p> <p>5.7.4 Magnetic Separation from a Solution 185</p> <p>5.8 Environmental Concerns and Toxicity of MNPs 186</p> <p>References 186</p> <p><b>6 Recovery of Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> and Nano CaCO<sub>3</sub> from Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> and CaSO<sub>4</sub> Wastes 197</b></p> <p><i>Conny P. Mokgohloa, Johannes P. Maree, David S. van Vuuren, Kwena D. Modibane, Munyaradzi Mujuru and Malose P. Mokhonoana</i></p> <p>6.1 Introduction 198</p> <p>6.2 Literature Survey 200</p> <p>6.2.1 Gypsum Reduction 200</p> <p>6.2.2 Nano CaCO<sub>3</sub> 202</p> <p>6.2.2.1 Uses 202</p> <p>6.2.2.2 Composition and Particle Size 202</p> <p>6.2.3 Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> 203</p> <p>6.2.3.1 Introduction 203</p> <p>6.2.3.2 Uses 203</p> <p>6.2.3.3 Chemical Properties 204</p> <p>6.2.3.4 Physical Properties 205</p> <p>6.2.3.5 Production Methods 206</p> <p>6.3 Materials and Methods 209</p> <p>6.3.1 Feedstock, Chemicals and Reagents 209</p> <p>6.3.2 Equipment 209</p> <p>6.3.3 Experimental and Procedure 209</p> <p>6.3.3.1 Thermal Treatment 209</p> <p>6.3.3.2 OLI Simulations and Beaker Studies 209</p> <p>6.3.3.3 Na<sub>2</sub>S Formation 209</p> <p>6.3.3.4 Ca(HS)<sub>2</sub> Formation 209</p> <p>6.3.3.5 Nano CaCO<sub>3</sub> Formation 210</p> <p>6.3.4 Analysis 210</p> <p>6.3.5 OLI Software Simulations 210</p> <p>6.4 Results and Discussion 211</p> <p>6.4.1 Direct Conversion of Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> to Na<sub>2</sub>S 211</p> <p>6.4.2 CaSO<sub>4</sub> Reduction 212</p> <p>6.4.2.1 CaS Formation 212</p> <p>6.4.2.2 Ca(HS)<sub>2</sub> Formation 213</p> <p>6.4.3 Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> Production 213</p> <p>6.4.3.1 Indirect Conversion of Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> to Na<sub>2</sub>S 213</p> <p>6.4.3.2 NaHCO<sub>3</sub> Formation 222</p> <p>6.4.3.3 NaHCO<sub>3</sub> and NaHS Separation 222</p> <p>6.4.3.4 Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> Formation 225</p> <p>6.4.3.5 Up-Concentration of NaHS (Freeze Crystallization) 225</p> <p>6.4.4 CaCO<sub>3</sub> Formation 225</p> <p>6.4.4.1 Crude and Pure CaCO<sub>3</sub> and Ca(HS)<sub>2</sub> Formation 225</p> <p>6.4.4.2 Nano CaCO<sub>3</sub> Formation 230</p> <p>6.5 Conclusions 232</p> <p>Acknowledgments 232</p> <p>References 232</p> <p><b>7 Recovery of Drinking Water and Nanosized Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> Pigment from Iron Rich Acid Mine Water 237<br /></b><i>Tumelo Monty Mogashane, Johannes Philippus Maree, Leny Letjiane, Vhahangwele Masindi, Kwena Desmomd Modibane, Munyaradzi Mujuru and Mabel Mamasegare Mphahlele-Makgwane</i></p> <p>7.1 Introduction 238</p> <p>7.1.1 Formation and Quantities 238</p> <p>7.1.2 Legal Requirements 238</p> <p>7.1.3 ROC Process 239</p> <p>7.1.4 Raw Material Manufacturing 241</p> <p>7.1.5 Objectives 243</p> <p>7.2 Literature Review 243</p> <p>7.2.1 Uses of Nanopigment 243</p> <p>7.2.2 Production of Nanopigment 244</p> <p>7.2.3 Market for Nanopigment 246</p> <p>7.3 Materials and Methods 247</p> <p>7.3.1 Neutralization 247</p> <p>7.3.1.1 Feedstock 247</p> <p>7.3.1.2 Equipment 248</p> <p>7.3.1.3 Procedure 248</p> <p>7.3.1.4 Experimental 249</p> <p>7.3.1.5 Analytical 249</p> <p>7.3.1.6 Characterization 249</p> <p>7.3.2 Coagulation 250</p> <p>7.3.2.1 Feedstock 250</p> <p>7.3.2.2 Equipment 250</p> <p>7.3.2.3 Procedure 250</p> <p>7.3.2.4 Experimental 250</p> <p>7.3.3 Pigment Formation 250</p> <p>7.3.3.1 Feedstock 250</p> <p>7.3.3.2 Equipment 250</p> <p>7.3.3.3 Procedure 252</p> <p>7.3.3.4 Experimental 252</p> <p>7.3.3.5 Characterization of the Sludge 252</p> <p>7.4 Results and Discussion 253</p> <p>7.4.1 Neutralization with MgO and Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> 253</p> <p>7.4.1.1 Solubilities of Alkalis and Products 254</p> <p>7.4.1.2 Sludge Characteristics 256</p> <p>7.4.1.3 Flocculant/Coagulant Selection and Dosing 259</p> <p>7.4.1.4 Centrifugation 260</p> <p>7.4.2 Concentration of Acid Mine Water 260</p> <p>7.4.2.1 Freeze Crystallization 261</p> <p>7.4.2.2 Forward Osmosis 262</p> <p>7.4.2.3 Feasibility of Forward Osmosis and Freeze Desalination 263</p> <p>7.4.3 Pigment Formation 263</p> <p>7.4.3.1 Effect of Temperature 263</p> <p>7.4.3.2 Elemental Composition of Feed and Product Mineral 264</p> <p>7.4.3.3 Morphological Characteristics of the Synthesized Pigments 265</p> <p>7.4.4 Process Configurations 268</p> <p>7.4.4.1 Iron(III)-Rich Water (Kopseer Dam) (Process Configuration A) 268</p> <p>7.4.4.2 Iron(II)-Rich Water (Top Dam) (Process Configuration B) 269</p> <p>7.4.4.3 Tailings and Tailings Leachate 269</p> <p>7.4.5 Economic Feasibility 272</p> <p>7.5 Conclusion 283</p> <p>7.6 Recommendation 284</p> <p>Acknowledgments 284</p> <p>References 285</p> <p><b>8 Advances of Nanotechnology Applications in Mineral Froth Flotation Technology 289<br /></b><i>Madzokere Tatenda Crispen, Nheta Willie and Gumbochuma Sheunopa</i></p> <p>Abbreviations 290</p> <p>8.1 Introduction to Froth Flotation 290</p> <p>8.2 Current Developments of Nanotechnology in the Mineral Froth Flotation Process 291</p> <p>8.2.1 Nanobubbles in Mineral Froth Flotation 291</p> <p>8.2.1.1 Generation and Conditions of Nanobubble Formation 292</p> <p>8.2.1.2 Properties and Stability of Nanobubbles 293</p> <p>8.2.2 General Overview of Applications of Nanobubbles in Mineral Froth Flotation and Recovery of Selected Minerals 294</p> <p>8.2.2.1 Flotation of Fine and Ultrafine Mineral Particles Using Nanobubbles 295</p> <p>8.2.2.2 Flotation of Coal Using Nanobubbles 296</p> <p>8.2.2.3 Flotation of Phosphate Ore Using Nanobubbles 298</p> <p>8.2.2.4 Interactive Relationship Between Nanobubbles, Collectors and Mineral Particles 299</p> <p>8.2.3 Nanofrothers in Mineral Froth Flotation 301</p> <p>8.2.4 Nanocollectors in Mineral Froth Flotation 303</p> <p>8.2.4.1 Nanopolystyrene Collector 303</p> <p>8.2.4.2 Cellulose-Based Nanocrystals Collector 307</p> <p>8.2.4.3 Carbon Black and Talc Nanoparticle Collectors 313</p> <p>8.2.5 Nanodepressants in Mineral Froth Flotation 315</p> <p>8.3 Intellectual Property (IP) and Commercialization of Nanotechnology in Mineral Froth Flotation Technology 319</p> <p>8.4 Current Research Gaps 319</p> <p>8.5 Conclusion 320</p> <p>References 320</p> <p><b>9 Nanoscale Materials for Mineral Froth Flotation: Synthesis and Implications of Nanoscale Material Design Strategies on Flotation Performance 327</b><i>n, Gumbochuma Sheunopa, Mudono Stanford and Mamuse Antony</i></p> <p>9.1 Introduction 328</p> <p>9.2 Classification of Minerals 329</p> <p>9.2.1 Chemical Classification of Minerals 330</p> <p>9.3 Synthesis and Characterization of Nanoscale Materials 337</p> <p>9.3.1 Top-Down Synthesis Approach 337</p> <p>9.3.2 Bottom-Up Synthesis Approach 337</p> <p>9.3.3 Characterization of Nanomaterials 338</p> <p>9.3.4 Effect of Nanoparticle Size, Morphology and Structure on Flotation Performance 340</p> <p>9.4 Nanoflotation Reagents and Mineral Particle Interaction in the Flotation Environment 340</p> <p>9.4.1 Effect of Mineral Surface Properties on Recovery 343</p> <p>9.4.1.1 Potential Strategies of Evaluating Surface Properties 344</p> <p>9.4.1.2 Effect of Mineral Surface Electric Charge and Microstructure on Flotation and Potential Techniques for Tailoring Nanocollector Hydrophobicity 346</p> <p>9.5 Nanotoxicology 347</p> <p>9.6 Conclusion 348</p> <p>References 348</p> <p>Index 355</p>