<p>List of Contributors xi</p> <p><b>1 Thermal Processing of Herbs and Spices 1<br /></b><i>Anjali H. Kurup, Shweta Deotale, Ashish Rawson, and Ankit Patras</i></p> <p>1.1 Introduction 1</p> <p>1.2 Thermal Processing of Spices 2</p> <p>1.2.1 Cooking and Roasting of Spices 2</p> <p>1.2.2 Blanching 9</p> <p>1.2.3 High-Pressure Steam Treatment 10</p> <p>1.2.4 Electromagnetic Energy (Microwave) Treatment 12</p> <p>1.3 Thermal Processing of Herbs 13</p> <p>1.4 Conclusion 16</p> <p>References 17</p> <p><b>2 Non-Thermal Processing of Herbs and Spices 23<br /></b><i>Camila A. Perussello</i></p> <p>2.1 Introduction 23</p> <p>2.2 Ozone 25</p> <p>2.3 Irradiation 28</p> <p>2.4 Pulsed Electric Field 31</p> <p>2.5 Pulsed Light 33</p> <p>2.6 Fumigation with Ethylene Dioxide 34</p> <p>2.7 High Pressure CO<sub>2</sub> Coupled with Ultrasound 36</p> <p>2.8 Cold Plasma 37</p> <p>2.9 Conclusions 39</p> <p>References 39</p> <p><b>3 Recent Developments in High-Quality Drying of Herbs and Spices 45<br /></b><i>Wei Jin, Min Zhang, Weifeng Shi, and Arun S. Mujumdar</i></p> <p>3.1 Introduction 45</p> <p>3.2 Novel Combined Drying Methods 46</p> <p>3.2.1 Solar-Related Combined Drying Methods 47</p> <p>3.2.2 Microwave-Related Combined Drying Methods 53</p> <p>3.2.3 Other Energy Sources-Related Combined Drying Methods 59</p> <p>3.3 Other Innovative Drying Methods 61</p> <p>3.4 Conclusion and Suggestions for Future Research 62</p> <p>Acknowledgments 63</p> <p>References 63</p> <p><b>4 Conventional Extraction Techniques for Bioactive Compounds from Herbs and Spices 69<br /></b><i>Md Abu Bakar Siddique, Katerina Tzima, Dilip K. Rai, and Nigel Brunton</i></p> <p>4.1 Introduction 69</p> <p>4.2 Principles of Extraction 70</p> <p>4.2.1 Solid–Liquid Extraction 70</p> <p>4.2.2 Liquid–Liquid Extraction 74</p> <p>4.3 Factors Affecting Extraction 76</p> <p>4.3.1 Solid–Liquid Extraction 76</p> <p>4.3.2 Liquid–Liquid Extraction 79</p> <p>4.3.3 Soxhlet Extraction 82</p> <p>4.4 Optimized Extraction Techniques for Herbs and Spices 85</p> <p>4.5 Conclusion 85</p> <p>References 88</p> <p><b>5 Novel Extraction Techniques for Bioactive Compounds from Herbs and Spices 95<br /></b><i>Andrea P. Sánchez-Camargo, Lidia Montero, Jose A. Mendiola, M. Herrero, and E. Ibáñez</i></p> <p>5.1 Introduction 95</p> <p>5.2 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 96</p> <p>5.2.1 Description of the Technique 96</p> <p>5.2.2 Applications of PLE to Herbs and Spices 98</p> <p>5.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 101</p> <p>5.3.1 Description of the Technique 101</p> <p>5.3.2 Applications of SFE to Herbs and Spices 103</p> <p>5.4 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE) 105</p> <p>5.4.1 Description of the Technique 105</p> <p>5.4.2 Applications of UAE to Herbs and Spices 106</p> <p>5.5 Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE) 108</p> <p>5.5.1 Description of the Technique 108</p> <p>5.5.2 Applications of MAE to Herbs and Spices 109</p> <p>5.6 Enzyme-Assisted Extraction (EAE) 112</p> <p>5.6.1 Description of the Technique 112</p> <p>5.6.2 Applications of EAE to Herbs and Spices 113</p> <p>5.7 Integration of Different Extraction Techniques 115</p> <p>5.7.1 Ultrasound–Microwave-Assisted Extraction (UMAE) 115</p> <p>5.7.2 Enzyme-Based–Ultrasound–Microwave-Assisted Extraction (EUMAE) 116</p> <p>5.7.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction–Pressurized Fluid Extraction (SFE–PLE) 116</p> <p>5.7.4 Supercritical Fluid Extraction Assisted by Ultrasound (SFE–UAE) 118</p> <p>5.8 Conclusions and Future Outlook 120</p> <p>Acknowledgments 121</p> <p>References 121</p> <p><b>6 Approaches to Analytical Techniques – Characterizing Phytochemicals in <i>Verbascum </i>spp. 129<br /></b><i>Anna-Maria Keaveney, Ambrose Furey, and Brigid Lucey</i></p> <p>6.1 Introduction 129</p> <p>6.2 The Challenge of Complexity 134</p> <p>6.3 Extraction Processes 137</p> <p>6.4 Separation and Detection 140</p> <p>6.4.1 Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) and High-Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) 143</p> <p>6.4.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 146</p> <p>6.4.3 Gas Chromatography (GC) 147</p> <p>6.4.4 Ion Exchange Chromatography, Size Exclusion Chromatography, Capillary Electrophoresis 147</p> <p>6.4.5 Hyphenated Techniques (LC–MS, GC–MS, LC–NMR) 148</p> <p>6.4.6 TLC Bioautography 149</p> <p>6.4.7 Spectroscopic Methods 150</p> <p>6.5 Chemical Characterization 151</p> <p>6.5.1 Iridoid Glycosides 153</p> <p>6.5.2 Flavonoids 158</p> <p>6.5.3 Phenylethanoid/Phenylproponoid Glycosides 159</p> <p>6.5.4 Saponins 160</p> <p>6.5.5 Spermine Alkaloids 161</p> <p>6.5.6 Polysaccharides 161</p> <p>6.5.7 Other Constituents 162</p> <p>6.6 Discussion 162</p> <p>6.7 Conclusion 165</p> <p>Funding and Acknowledgments 166</p> <p>References 166</p> <p><b>7 Purification and Isolation Techniques for Enrichment of Bioactive Phytochemicals from Herbs and Spices 177<br /></b><i>Ramón Aznar and Dilip K. Rai</i></p> <p>7.1 Introduction 177</p> <p>7.2 How to Approach Purification and Isolation 178</p> <p>7.3 Purification Techniques 180</p> <p>7.3.1 Liquid–Liquid Fractionation 180</p> <p>7.3.2 Solid-Phase Extraction 181</p> <p>7.3.3 Preparative Liquid Chromatography 185</p> <p>7.3.4 Hydrolysis 194</p> <p>7.3.5 Membrane Filtration 195</p> <p>7.3.6 Recrystallization 195</p> <p>7.3.7 Other Techniques 197</p> <p>7.4 Example of Purification and Isolation 198</p> <p>7.5 Challenges and Future Trends 199</p> <p>References 201</p> <p><b>8 Medicinal Properties of Herbs and Spices: Past, Present, and Future 207<br /></b><i>Celia Rodríguez-Pérez and Ramón Aznar</i></p> <p>8.1 Introduction 207</p> <p>8.2 Historical Uses of Herbs and Spices 208</p> <p>8.3 Herbs and Spices in the Prevention and Treatment of Chronic Diseases 210</p> <p>8.3.1 Anticancer Properties 210</p> <p>8.3.2 Anti-inflammatory Properties 230</p> <p>8.3.3 Antidiabetic Properties 231</p> <p>8.3.4 Antiobesity Properties 233</p> <p>8.3.5 Hypolipidemic Properties 233</p> <p>8.3.6 Influence on Digestive Stimulation 235</p> <p>8.3.7 Antihypertensive Properties 236</p> <p>8.3.8 Protection Against Alzheimer’s Disease 236</p> <p>8.3.9 Hepatoprotective Properties 237</p> <p>8.4 Interaction and Potential Side Effects 238</p> <p>8.5 Future Trends 239</p> <p>Abbreviations 239</p> <p>References 240</p> <p><b>9 Synergy in Whole Plant Medicine: <i>Crataegus </i>spp.: An Example 251<br /></b><i>Mary C. Tassell, Anne-Maria Keaveney, Rosari Kingston, Deirdre Gilroy, Mary Lehane, Brigid Lucey, and Ambrose Furey</i></p> <p>9.1 Introduction 251</p> <p>9.2 Cardiovascular Diseases 252</p> <p>9.3 <i>Crataegus </i>spp. 252</p> <p>9.4 Synergy 254</p> <p>9.4.1 Dose–Effect Approaches 257</p> <p>9.4.2 Effect-Based Approaches 260</p> <p>9.5 Mechanisms of Action 262</p> <p>9.5.1 Multitarget Effects 264</p> <p>9.5.2 Pharmacokinetic or Physicochemical Effects (Enhanced Bioavailability, Improved Solubility, or Improved Resorption Rate) 264</p> <p>9.5.3 Interactions with the Antibiotic Resistance Mechanisms of Bacteria 264</p> <p>9.5.4 Improved Effectiveness by, for Example, Elimination or Neutralization of</p> <p>Adverse or Toxic Effects 265</p> <p>9.6 <i>Crataegus </i>spp. – a Review 266</p> <p>9.6.1 Published Papers 266</p> <p>9.6.2 Multitarget Effects 270</p> <p>9.7 General Considerations 272</p> <p>9.7.1 Lack of a Precise Definition for Combination Effects 272</p> <p>9.7.2 Heterogeneity of Studies 273</p> <p>9.7.3 Preparations Used 273</p> <p>9.7.4 Absorption and Bioavailability 274</p> <p>9.8 Conclusion 275</p> <p>Funding and Acknowledgments 276</p> <p>References 276</p> <p><b>10 Potential Applications of Polyphenols from Herbs and Spices in Dairy Products as Natural Antioxidants 283<br /></b><i>Katerina Tzima, Nigel P. Brunton, Alka Choudhary, and Dilip K. Rai</i></p> <p>10.1 Introduction 283</p> <p>10.2 Implications in the Use of Herbs and Spices as Natural Antioxidants in Milk and Dairy Products 284</p> <p>10.2.1 Effect of Phenolic Concentration on Milk and Dairy Products 284</p> <p>10.2.2 Effect of Phenolics on the Organoleptic Properties of Dairy Products 285</p> <p>10.2.3 Effect of Phenolics on the Protein Stability of Milk and Dairy Products 287</p> <p>10.2.4 Effect of Indigenous Antioxidant Compounds (Chlorophyll) on the Color of Milk and Dairy Products 288</p> <p>10.3 Milk and Dairy Products as Carriers of Natural Antioxidants 288</p> <p>10.3.1 Butter and Dairy Spreads as Carriers of Natural Antioxidants 289</p> <p>10.3.2 Cheese as a Carrier of Natural Antioxidants 290</p> <p>10.3.3 Ghee as a Carrier of Natural Antioxidants 291</p> <p>10.3.4 Sandesh as a Carrier of Natural Antioxidants 292</p> <p>10.3.5 Yogurt as a Carrier of Natural Antioxidants 293</p> <p>10.3.6 Ice Cream as a Carrier of Natural Antioxidants 294</p> <p>Abbreviations 294</p> <p>References 294</p> <p><b>11 Biotic and Abiotic Safety Concerns for Herbs and Spices 301<br /></b><i>Manja Zec and Maria Glibetic</i></p> <p>11.1 Natural Products in Science – “Generally Recognized as Safe?” 303</p> <p>11.2 Herbs and Spices – Reported Adverse Effects and Adverse Drug Reactions 304</p> <p>11.3 (A)Biotic Factors Incorporated in the Foodchain and Influencing the Safety of Herbal Consumption 306</p> <p>11.4 Herbal Product Safety Concerns – Advances in Identification and Regulatory Framework 309</p> <p>References 313</p> <p><b>12 Adverse Human Health Effects and Regulation of Metal Contaminants in Terrestrial Plant-Derived Food and Phytopharmaceuticals 321<br /></b><i>Ciara-Ruth Kenny, Brigid Lucey, and Ambrose Furey</i></p> <p>12.1 Introduction 321</p> <p>12.2 Sources of Environmental Metal Impurities Contributing to Plant Material Contamination 323</p> <p>12.2.1 Soil and Surrounding Rhizosphere 324</p> <p>12.2.2 Air 326</p> <p>12.2.3 Water (Ground-, Surface- and Waste-water) 327</p> <p>12.2.4 Processing, Packaging, Storage, and Preparation 327</p> <p>12.3 Overview of Metal Uptake Systems in Plants 328</p> <p>12.4 Human Exposure to Metals in Plant-Derived Food and Associated Regulation 328</p> <p>12.4.1 Aluminum (Al) 335</p> <p>12.4.2 Arsenic (As) 336</p> <p>12.4.3 Cadmium 342</p> <p>12.4.4 Chromium (Cr) 346</p> <p>12.4.5 Lead (Pb) and Mercury (Hg) 348</p> <p>12.5 Metals in Phytopharmaceuticals and Associated Regulation 349</p> <p>12.5.1 Phytopharmaceuticals 349</p> <p>12.5.2 Current European Regulatory Guidelines: The Herbal Directive Scheme 349</p> <p>12.5.3 Current Quality Criteria for Metal Impurities 351</p> <p>12.5.4 Key Issues 354</p> <p>12.6 Metal Contaminants in Supplements: An Overview 356</p> <p>12.7 Conclusion 356</p> <p>Declaration of Interest 357</p> <p>Funding and Acknowledgments 357</p> <p>References 357</p> <p>Index 377</p>