<p>List of Contributors xvii</p> <p>Series Preface xxi</p> <p>Preface xxiii</p> <p><b>1 Sources of Chitin and Chitosan and their Isolation 1<br /></b><i>Leen Bastiaens, Lise Soetemans, Els D’Hondt, and Kathy Elst</i></p> <p>1.1 Chitin and Chitosan 2</p> <p>1.1.1 Chemical Structure 2</p> <p>1.1.2 Different Crystalline Forms of Chitin 2</p> <p>1.2 Sources of Chitin and Chitosan 5</p> <p>1.2.1 Sources of Chitin 5</p> <p>1.2.2 Sources for Chitosan 10</p> <p>1.3 Isolation of Chitin 11</p> <p>1.3.1 Technology Principles 11</p> <p>1.3.2 Isolation of Chitin from Crustaceans 13</p> <p>1.3.3 Isolation of Chitin from Insects 16</p> <p>1.3.4 Isolation of Chitin from Other Biomass Types 16</p> <p>1.4 Production of Chitosan 19</p> <p>1.4.1 Conversion of Chitin to Chitosan 19</p> <p>1.4.2 Chitosan Extracted from Fungi 24</p> <p>1.5 Towards Commercial Applications 25</p> <p>1.6 Outlook 28</p> <p>References 28</p> <p><b>2 Methods of Isolating Chitin from Sponges (Porifera) 35<br /></b><i>Sonia </i><i>Żółtowska, Christine Klinger, Iaroslav Petrenko, Marcin Wysokowski, Yvonne Joseph, Teofil Jesionowski, and Hermann Ehrlich</i></p> <p>2.1 Introduction 35</p> <p>2.2 Brief Overview of Classical Methods of Isolating Chitin from Invertebrates 38</p> <p>2.3 The Modern Approach to Chitin Isolation from Sponges 40</p> <p>2.3.1 Methods of Isolating Chitin from Glass Sponges (Hexactinellida) 41</p> <p>2.3.2 Methods of Isolating Chitin from Demosponges (Demospongiae) 43</p> <p>2.4 Prospective Applications of Poriferan Chitin 49</p> <p>2.4.1 Poriferan Chitin and Modern Bioinspired Materials Science 49</p> <p>2.4.2 Chitinous 3D Scaffolds of Sponge Origin for Tissue Engineering 51</p> <p>2.5 Outlook 54</p> <p>Acknowledgment 54</p> <p>References 54</p> <p><b>3 Physicochemical Properties of Chitosan and its Degradation Products 61<br /></b><i>Karolina Gzyra‐Jagieła, Bo</i><i>żenna P</i><i>ęczek, Maria Wi</i><i>śniewska‐Wrona, and Natalia Gutowska</i></p> <p>3.1 Physicochemical Properties of Chitosan 62</p> <p>3.1.1 Determination of Molar Mass 62</p> <p>3.1.2 Determination of the Deacetylation Degree 67</p> <p>3.1.3 Determination of Dynamic Viscosity 70</p> <p>3.1.4 Determination of Nitrogen 70</p> <p>3.1.5 Determination of Ash Content 71</p> <p>3.1.6 Determination of Heavy Metal Content 71</p> <p>3.1.7 Determination of Water Retention Value (WRV) 72</p> <p>3.1.8 Determination of Solubility in Hydrochloric Acid 72</p> <p>3.1.9 Determination of Water Content 72</p> <p>3.1.10 Determination of Protein Content 73</p> <p>3.1.11 Quantitative Determination of Chitosan by Ninhydrin 73</p> <p>3.2 Products of Degradation and their Application 74</p> <p>3.3 Outlook 77</p> <p>References 77</p> <p><b>4 New Developments in the Analysis of Partially Acetylated Chitosan Polymers and Oligomers 81<br /></b><i>Stefan Cord‐Landwehr, Anna Niehues, Jasper Wattjes, and Bruno M. Moerschbacher</i></p> <p>4.1 Introduction 82</p> <p>4.2 Chitosan Oligomers 83</p> <p>4.2.1 Degree of Polymerisation (DP), Fraction and Pattern of Acetylation (F<sub>A</sub> and P<sub>A</sub>) 83</p> <p>4.3 Chitosan Polymers 86</p> <p>4.3.1 Molecular Weight (MW) / Degree of Polymerisation (DP) and its Dispersity (<i>Ð</i><sub>MW</sub> / <i>Ð</i><sub>DP</sub>) 86</p> <p>4.3.2 Fraction of Acetylation (F<sub>A</sub>) and its Dispersity (<i>Ð</i><sub>FA</sub>) 87</p> <p>4.3.3 Pattern of Acetylation (P<sub>A</sub>) 89</p> <p>4.4 Outlook 91</p> <p>References 92</p> <p><b>5 Chitosan‐Based Hydrogels 97<br /></b><i>Zhengke Wang, Ling Yang, and Wen Fang</i></p> <p>5.1 Introduction 97</p> <p>5.2 Chitosan‐Based Multilayered Hydrogels 98</p> <p>5.2.1 Periodic Precipitation 99</p> <p>5.2.2 Alternating Process 100</p> <p>5.2.3 Induced by Electrical Signals 100</p> <p>5.2.4 Layer‐by‐Layer (LbL) Assembly 101</p> <p>5.2.5 Sequential Curing 101</p> <p>5.3 Chitin/Chitosan Physical Hydrogels Based on Alkali/Urea Solvent System 103</p> <p>5.3.1 Chitin Hydrogels Based on Alkali/Urea Solvent System 104</p> <p>5.3.2 Chitosan Hydrogels Based on Alkali/Urea Solvent System 104</p> <p>5.4 Chitosan‐Based Injectable Hydrogels 108</p> <p>5.4.1 Physical Association Networks 108</p> <p>5.4.2 Chemical Association Networks 110</p> <p>5.4.3 Double‐Network Hydrogels 116</p> <p>5.5 Chitosan‐Based Self‐Healing Hydrogels 119</p> <p>5.5.1 Physical Interactions 119</p> <p>5.5.2 Dynamic Chemical Bonds 121</p> <p>5.6 Chitosan‐Based Shape Memory Hydrogels 125</p> <p>5.6.1 Water‐/Solvent‐Triggered Shape Recovery 126</p> <p>5.6.2 pH‐triggered Shape Recovery 126</p> <p>5.6.3 Ultrasound Triggered Shape Recovery 126</p> <p>5.6.4 Self‐Actuated Shape Memory Hydrogels 127</p> <p>5.6.5 Chitosan‐Based Hydrogels with Triple Shape Memory Effect 127</p> <p>5.7 Superabsorbent Chitosan‐Based Hydrogels 131</p> <p>5.7.1 Cross‐Linked Chitosan‐Based Hydrogels 132</p> <p>5.7.2 Hydrogels by Graft Copolymerization 133</p> <p>5.7.3 Chitosan‐Based Composite Hydrogels 134</p> <p>5.7.4 Pure Chitosan‐Based Materials 135</p> <p>5.8 Outlook 136</p> <p>References 136</p> <p><b>6 Beneficial Health Effects of Chitin and Chitosan 145<br /></b><i>Liyou Dong, Harry J. Wichers, and Coen Govers</i></p> <p>6.1 Immunomodulatory Effects of Chitin and Chitosan as Demonstrated with <i>In Vitro </i>Studies 146</p> <p>6.2 Beneficial Health Effects Mediated by Chitin and Chitosan as Demonstrated with Animal Studies 149</p> <p>6.2.1 Immune Modulation 149</p> <p>6.2.2 Anti‐Pathogenic Effects 155</p> <p>6.2.3 Anti‐Tumour Effects 157</p> <p>6.3 Beneficial Health Effects Mediated by Chitin and Chitosan as Demonstrated with Clinical Trials 158</p> <p>6.3.1 Cholesterol Reduction and CVD Preventive Effects 158</p> <p>6.3.2 Other Health Effects 160</p> <p>6.4 Requirements to forward the Field of Study Towards the Beneficial Health Effects of Chitin and Chitosan 163</p> <p>6.5 Outlook 164</p> <p>Acknowledgement 164</p> <p>References 164</p> <p><b>7 Antimicrobial Properties of Chitin and Chitosan 169<br /></b><i>Magdalena Kucharska, Monika Sikora, Kinga Brzoza‐Malczewska, and Monika Owczarek</i></p> <p>7.1 Microbiological Activity of Chitosan – The Mechanism of its Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity 169</p> <p>7.2 The use of Chitin/Chitosan’s Microbiological Activity in Medicine and Pharmacy 171</p> <p>7.3 Microbiological Activity of Chitosan in the Food Industry 174</p> <p>7.4 Microbiological Activity of Chitosan in Paper and Textile Industries 176</p> <p>7.5 Microbiological Activity of Chitosan in Agriculture 177</p> <p>7.6 Outlook 181</p> <p>References 181</p> <p><b>8 Enzymes for Modification of Chitin and Chitosan 189<br /></b><i>Gustav Vaaje‐Kolstad, Tina Rise Tuveng, Sophanit Mekasha, and Vincent G.H. Eijsink</i></p> <p>8.1 CAZymes in Chitin Degradation and Modification 190</p> <p>8.1.1 Chitinases 191</p> <p>8.1.2 <i>β</i>‐N‐acetylhexosaminidases 195</p> <p>8.1.3 <i>Exo</i>‐β‐glucosaminidases 195</p> <p>8.1.4 Chitosanases 197</p> <p>8.1.5 Lytic Polysaccharide Monooxygenases 199</p> <p>8.1.6 Carbohydrate Esterases 200</p> <p>8.1.7 Carbohydrate‐Binding Modules 204</p> <p>8.2 Modular Diversity in Chitinases, Chitosanases and LPMOs 204</p> <p>8.3 Biological Roles of Chitin‐Active Enzymes 205</p> <p>8.4 Microbial Degradation and Utilisation of Chitin 208</p> <p>8.4.1 Chitin Degradation by <i>Serratia marcescens </i>209</p> <p>8.4.2 Chitin Degradation by Bacteria in the Bacteroidetes Phylum 211</p> <p>8.4.3 Chitin Degradation by <i>Thermococcus Kodakarensis </i>211</p> <p>8.4.4 Chitin Degradation by Fungi 212</p> <p>8.5 Biotechnological Perspectives 213</p> <p>8.6 Biorefining of Chitin‐Rich Biomass 214</p> <p>8.7 Outlook 216</p> <p>References 216</p> <p><b>9 Chitin and Chitosan as Sources of Bio‐Based Building Blocks and Chemicals 229<br /></b><i>Malgorzata Kaisler, Lambertus A.M. van den Broek, and Carmen G. Boeriu</i></p> <p>9.1 Introduction 230</p> <p>9.2 Chitin Conversion into Chitosan, Chitooligosaccharides and Monosaccharides 232</p> <p>9.2.1 Chitosan Production 232</p> <p>9.2.2 Production of Chitooligosaccharides 234</p> <p>9.2.3 Production of GlcNAc and GlcN from Chitin 235</p> <p>9.3 Building Blocks for Polymers from Chitin and its Derivatives 238</p> <p>9.3.1 Furan‐Based Monomers 238</p> <p>9.3.2 Amino Alcohol and Amino Acid Building Blocks 239</p> <p>9.4 Outlook 239</p> <p>Acknowledgement 240</p> <p>References 240</p> <p><b>10 Chemical and Enzymatic Modification of Chitosan to Produce New </b><b>Functional Materials with Improved Properties 245<br /></b><i>Carmen G. Boeriu and Lambertus A.M. van den Broek</i></p> <p>10.1 Introduction 245</p> <p>10.2 Functional Chitosan Derivatives by Chemical and Enzymatic Modification 246</p> <p>10.2.1 Anionic Chitosan Derivatives 248</p> <p>10.2.2 Hydroxyalkylchitosans 250</p> <p>10.2.3 Quaternised and Highly Cationic Chitosan Derivatives 250</p> <p>10.2.4 Hydroxyaryl Chitosan Derivatives 250</p> <p>10.2.5 Carbohydrate‐Modified Chitosan 251</p> <p>10.3 Graft Co‐Polymers of Chitosan 251</p> <p>10.4 Cross‐Linked Chitosan and Chitosan Polymer Networks 254</p> <p>10.5 Outlook 254</p> <p>References 255</p> <p><b>11 Chitosan‐Based Drug Delivery Systems 259<br /></b><i>Cristian Peptu, Andra Cristina Humelnicu, Razvan Rotaru, Maria Emiliana Fortuna, Xenia Patras, Mirela Teodorescu, Bogdan Ionel Tamba, and Valeria Harabagiu</i></p> <p>11.1 Introduction 260</p> <p>11.2 Beneficial Effects of Chitosan 261</p> <p>11.2.1 Interaction with Anionic Drugs 263</p> <p>11.2.2 Mucoadhesive Properties 263</p> <p>11.2.3 Transfection Activity 263</p> <p>11.2.4 Efflux Pump Inhibitory Properties 265</p> <p>11.2.5 Permeation‐Enhancing Properties 265</p> <p>11.3 Chitosan—an Active Polymer for Bypassing Biological Barriers 265</p> <p>11.3.1 Skin Barrier 266</p> <p>11.3.2 Mucosa Barrier 267</p> <p>11.3.3 Ophthalmic Barrier 269</p> <p>11.3.4 Blood–Brain Barrier 270</p> <p>11.4 Chitosan‐Based DDS Formulations 271</p> <p>11.4.1 Hydrogels 275</p> <p>11.4.2 Micro/NPs 275</p> <p>11.4.3 Nanofibers 275</p> <p>11.4.4 Scaffolds and Membranes 275</p> <p>11.5 Outlook 276</p> <p>Acknowledgment 276</p> <p>References 276</p> <p><b>12 The Application of Chitin and its Derivatives for the Design of Advanced Medical Devices 291<br /></b><i>Marcin H. Struszczyk, Longina Madej‐Kiełbik, and Dorota Zielińska</i></p> <p>12.1 Selection of the Raw Sources: Safety Criteria 291</p> <p>12.1.1 Aspect of Animal Tissue‐Originated Derivatives 292</p> <p>12.1.2 General Requirements for Chitinous Biopolymers Applied in Designing Medical Devices 292</p> <p>12.1.3 Characterisation of the Biopolymer for Application in Wound Dressing Designing 293</p> <p>12.1.4 Aspect of the Sterilization of the Final Wound Dressing 295</p> <p>12.2 Types of Wound Dressings Consisting of Chitin‐Derived Biopolymers Available in the Market 297</p> <p>12.3 Performance and Safety Assessment 297</p> <p>12.4 New Ideas and Concepts 301</p> <p>12.5 Risk Acceptance and Design Process Aspects 306</p> <p>12.6 Outlook 308</p> <p>Acknowledgements 308</p> <p>References 308</p> <p><b>13 Food Applications of Chitosan and its Derivatives 315<br /></b><i>Suse Botelho da Silva, Daiana de Souza, and Liziane Dantas Lacerda</i></p> <p>13.1 Introduction 315</p> <p>13.2 Chitosan and its Derivatives as Food Additive 316</p> <p>13.2.1 Antioxidant 318</p> <p>13.2.2 Antimicrobial 319</p> <p>13.2.3 Stabilizer and Thickener 319</p> <p>13.3 Functional Ingredient and Health Beneficial Effects 320</p> <p>13.4 Active Packaging 321</p> <p>13.5 Enzyme Immobilization 331</p> <p>13.6 Encapsulation and Delivering of Bioactive Ingredients 332</p> <p>13.7 Adsorption and Chelation of Toxic and Undesirable Compounds 334</p> <p>13.8 Outlook 339</p> <p>References 340</p> <p><b>14 Potential of Chitosans in the Development of Edible Food Packaging 349<br /></b><i>Véronique Coma and Artur Bartkowiak</i></p> <p>14.1 Potential Limitations for Real Introduction into the Market 350</p> <p>14.1.1 Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) 351</p> <p>14.1.2 Solubility 351</p> <p>14.1.3 Source—Origin 352</p> <p>14.1.4 Structure Variability 352</p> <p>14.2 Films and Coatings for Food Preservation 353</p> <p>14.2.1 Definitions and Interests 353</p> <p>14.2.2 Main Relevant Chitosan‐Based Material Properties 353</p> <p>14.3 Specific Case of Chitosan Nanoparticles (CSNPs) 357</p> <p>14.3.1 CSNPs 357</p> <p>14.3.2 CSNPs in Various Edible Films 358</p> <p>14.3.3 Antimicrobial Activities of CSNPs in Edible Films 359</p> <p>14.3.4 Toxicity Studies of CSNPs 360</p> <p>14.4 Applications to Sensitive Real Food Products 360</p> <p>14.4.1 Fruits and Vegetables 361</p> <p>14.4.2 Meat and Meat Products 362</p> <p>14.4.3 Fish and Seafood Products 362</p> <p>14.5 Conclusions 364</p> <p>References 364</p> <p><b>15 The Use of Chitosan‐Based Nanoformulations for Controlling Fungi During Storage of Horticultural Commodities 371<br /></b><i>Silvia Bautista‐Baños, Zormy Nacary Correa‐Pacheco, and Rosa Isela Ventura‐Aguilar</i></p> <p>15.1 Introduction 372</p> <p>15.2 Importance of Fruits and Vegetables 372</p> <p>15.3 Storage Disorders and Diseases of Horticultural Products 374</p> <p>15.4 Plant Fungi Inhibition by Chitosan Application 375</p> <p>15.5 Chitosan Integrated with Other Alternative Methods for Controlling Postharvest Fungi 376</p> <p>15.6 Chitosan‐Based Formulations 376</p> <p>15.7 Physiological Response and Quality Retention of Horticultural Commodities to Chitosan Coating Application 376</p> <p>15.8 Influence of Chitosan Coatings on the Shelf Life of Horticultural Products 378</p> <p>15.9 Effects of Chitosan Coatings with Additional Compounds on Quality and Microorganisms Development 379</p> <p>15.10 Integration of Chitosan Nanoparticles into Coating Formulations and their Effects on the Quality of Horticultural Commodities and Development of Microorganisms 384</p> <p>15.11 Outlook 387</p> <p>Acknowledgments 387</p> <p>References 387</p> <p><b>16 Chitosan Application in Textile Processing and Fabric Coating 395<br /></b><i>Thomas Hahn, Leonie Bossog, Tom Hager, Werner Wunderlich, Rudi Breier, Thomas Stegmaier, and Susanne Zibek</i></p> <p>16.1 Chitosan in the Textile Industry 396</p> <p>16.2 Textile Production 398</p> <p>16.3 General Test Methods 400</p> <p>16.4 Fibres and Yarns from Chitin and Chitosan 401</p> <p>16.4.1 Chitin and Chitosan Solubilisation for Spinning Purposes 402</p> <p>16.4.2 Chitosan Spinning Processes 402</p> <p>16.4.3 Mechanical Properties of Chitosan Fibres/Yarns 404</p> <p>16.5 Sizing with Chitosan 406</p> <p>16.5.1 Miscibility of Chitosan with Other Sizing Agents 407</p> <p>16.5.2 Viscosity of Chitosan‐Containing Sizing Agents 408</p> <p>16.5.3 Adhesion and Wetting 410</p> <p>16.5.4 Mechanical–Physical Properties of Chitosan Films 411</p> <p>16.5.5 Removal and Processing of Chitosan Sizing after Weaving 412</p> <p>16.6 Chitosan as a Finishing Agent or Coating 414</p> <p>16.6.1 Chitosan as a Carrier and Linker 415</p> <p>16.6.2 Formation of a Durable Finish with Chitosan 416</p> <p>16.6.3 Chitosan as an Active Agent 417</p> <p>16.7 Outlook 419</p> <p>Nomenclature 420</p> <p>References 421</p> <p><b>17 Chitin and Chitosan for Water Purification 429<br /></b><i>Petrisor Samoila, Andra Cristina Humelnicu, Maria Ignat, Corneliu Cojocaru, and Valeria Harabagiu</i></p> <p>17.1 Introduction 430</p> <p>17.2 Wastewater Treatment by Adsorption 432</p> <p>17.2.1 Principle of the Adsorption Process 432</p> <p>17.2.2 Adsorption of Organic Compounds 434</p> <p>17.2.3 Adsorption of Heavy Metals 437</p> <p>17.3 Wastewater Treatment by Coagulation/Flocculation 440</p> <p>17.4 Wastewater Treatment by Membrane Separation 446</p> <p>17.4.1 Principle of Ultrafiltration Process 446</p> <p>17.4.2 Fabrication of Ultrafiltration Blend Membranes 448</p> <p>17.4.3 Chitosan‐Enhanced Ultrafiltration 450</p> <p>17.5 Outlook 452</p> <p>Acknowledgement 452</p> <p>References 453</p> <p><b>18 Chitosan for Sensors and Electrochemical Applications 461<br /></b><i>Suse Botelho da Silva, Guilherme Lopes Batista, and Cristiane Krause Santin</i></p> <p>18.1 Introduction 461</p> <p>18.2 Chitosan: A Biopolymer with Unique Properties 462</p> <p>18.3 Modification and Preparation of Chitosan‐Based Materials for Electrochemical Applications 463</p> <p>18.4 The Proton Conductivity of Chitosan 465</p> <p>18.5 Selected Applications 467</p> <p>18.5.1 Electrochemical Sensors 467</p> <p>18.5.2 Spectroscopic Sensors 470</p> <p>18.5.3 Other Electrochemical Devices 471</p> <p>18.6 Outlook 472</p> <p>References 473</p> <p><b>19 Marketing and Regulations of Chitin and Chitosan from Insects 477<br /></b><i>Nathalie Berezina and Antoine Hubert</i></p> <p>19.1 Historical Outline 477</p> <p>19.2 Natural Origins of Chitin 478</p> <p>19.3 Specificities of Chitin Biopolymer 479</p> <p>19.4 Differences Among Chitins from Insects and Other Sources 479</p> <p>19.4.1 Differences of Chemical Compositions of the Cuticles 479</p> <p>19.4.2 Differences of Physical Assemblies of Chains and Molecules 480</p> <p>19.5 Extraction and Purification Specificities of Chitins from Insects 480</p> <p>19.5.1 Different Cuticle Structures and Contents of Insects 480</p> <p>19.5.2 Chemical Extraction 480</p> <p>19.5.3 Biological Extraction 481</p> <p>19.5.4 Characterization and Transformation into Chitosan 481</p> <p>19.6 Market Opportunities and its Regulations 482</p> <p>19.6.1 Agriculture Applications 482</p> <p>19.6.2 Water Treatment Applications 483</p> <p>19.6.3 Material Applications 483</p> <p>19.6.4 Biomedical Applications 484</p> <p>19.7 Outlook 485</p> <p>References 485</p> <p>Index 491</p>