<p><b>Preface </b>xi</p> <p><b>Part I Electrical Conductive Materials: General Aspects 1</b></p> <p><b>1.1 The Compromise Between Conductivity and Transparency 3</b><br /><i>Alicia de Andrés, Félix Jiménez-Villacorta, and Carlos Prieto</i></p> <p>1.1.1 Introduction 3</p> <p>1.1.2 Relevant Parameters for Transparent Electrodes 5</p> <p>1.1.2.1 Transmittance 5</p> <p>1.1.2.2 Transmittance and Absorption Coefficient: Experimental Aspects 6</p> <p>1.1.2.3 Electronic Transport Parameters 7</p> <p>1.1.2.4 Figure of Merit 9</p> <p>1.1.3 Spectroscopies 11</p> <p>1.1.3.1 Raman and Infrared Spectroscopies 11</p> <p>1.1.3.2 X-ray Absorption Spectroscopies 13</p> <p>1.1.3.3 UPS and XPS 15</p> <p>1.1.4 Transparent Conducting Materials 17</p> <p>1.1.4.1 Oxide Electrodes: Amorphous Films 17</p> <p>1.1.4.2 Metallic Nanowires and Grids 18</p> <p>1.1.4.3 Graphene and Graphene Oxide 19</p> <p>1.1.4.4 Graphene Doping with Atoms and Nanoparticles 21</p> <p>1.1.5 Conclusions and Forecast 24</p> <p>References 25</p> <p><b>Part II Inorganic Conductive Materials</b> 31</p> <p><b>2.1 Metallic Oxides (ITO, ZnO, SnO<sub>2</sub>, TiO<sub>2</sub>) </b>33<br /><i>Klaus Ellmer, RainaldMientus, and Stefan Seeger</i></p> <p>2.1.1 Introduction 33</p> <p>2.1.2 Basic Bulk Properties 35</p> <p>2.1.2.1 ITO 38</p> <p>2.1.2.1.1 Crystallographic Structure 38</p> <p>2.1.2.1.2 Electrical Properties 39</p> <p>2.1.2.1.3 Optical Properties 40</p> <p>2.1.2.2 ZnO 42</p> <p>2.1.2.2.1 Crystallographic Structure 43</p> <p>2.1.2.2.2 Electrical Properties 44</p> <p>2.1.2.2.3 Optical Properties 46</p> <p>2.1.2.3 SnO<sub>2</sub> 47</p> <p>2.1.2.3.1 Crystallographic Structure 48</p> <p>2.1.2.3.2 Electrical Properties 48</p> <p>2.1.2.3.3 Optical Properties 48</p> <p>2.1.2.4 TiO<sub>2</sub> 50</p> <p>2.1.2.4.1 Crystallographic Structure 50</p> <p>2.1.2.4.2 Electrical Properties 53</p> <p>2.1.2.4.3 Optical Properties 55</p> <p>2.1.3 Thin Film Properties 57</p> <p>2.1.3.1 ITO 57</p> <p>2.1.3.2 ZnO 59</p> <p>2.1.3.3 SnO<sub>2</sub> 60</p> <p>2.1.3.4 TiO<sub>2</sub> 63</p> <p>2.1.4 Conclusions 67</p> <p>References 68</p> <p><b>2.2 Chemical Bath Depositio</b><b>n 81</b><br /><i>Peter Fuchs, Yaroslav E. Romanyuk, and Ayodhya N. Tiwari</i></p> <p>2.2.1 Introduction 81</p> <p>2.2.2 Principles of Chemical Bath Deposition 81</p> <p>2.2.3 Material Examples 82</p> <p>2.2.3.1 ZnO 82</p> <p>2.2.3.2 SnO<sub>2</sub> 90</p> <p>2.2.3.3 In2O<sub>3</sub> 92</p> <p>2.2.3.4 CdO 93</p> <p>2.2.4 Low-temperature Post-deposition Treatment 93</p> <p>2.2.5 Implementation of CBD TCOs in Devices 94</p> <p>2.2.6 Conclusions and Outlook 96</p> <p>References 97</p> <p><b>2.3 Metal Nanowires 105</b><br /><i>Chao Chen and Changhui Ye</i></p> <p>2.3.1 Synthesis of Metal Nanowires 108</p> <p>2.3.2 Fabrication of Transparent Conductive Films on the Basis of Metal Nanowires 110</p> <p>2.3.3 PatterningMetal Nanowire Transparent Conductive Films 112</p> <p>2.3.4 Performance of Metal Nanowire Transparent Conductive Films 114</p> <p>2.3.4.1 Transparency and Conductivity 115</p> <p>2.3.4.2 Haze Factor 117</p> <p>2.3.4.3 Color 119</p> <p>2.3.4.4 Uniformity 120</p> <p>2.3.4.5 Roughness 121</p> <p>2.3.4.6 Adhesiveness 123</p> <p>2.3.4.7 Stability 124</p> <p>2.3.5 Concluding Remarks 126</p> <p>References 127</p> <p><b>Part III Organic Conductive Materials 133</b></p> <p><b>3.1 Carbon Nanotubes 135</b><br /><i>Félix Salazar-Bloise</i></p> <p>3.1.1 Introduction 135</p> <p>3.1.2 Some Simple Carbon Structures 136</p> <p>3.1.3 Graphene in the Context of Nanotubes 137</p> <p>3.1.4 Fundamentals of Nanotubes 142</p> <p>3.1.4.1 Structure of Carbon Nanotubes 142</p> <p>3.1.4.2 Electronic Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 146</p> <p>3.1.5 Mechanical Properties 151</p> <p>3.1.6 Thermal Properties 152</p> <p>3.1.7 Some Techniques for Producing Nanotubes 155</p> <p>3.1.7.1 Arc-discharge Method 155</p> <p>3.1.7.2 Laser Ablation 156</p> <p>3.1.7.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 156</p> <p>References 156</p> <p><b>3.2 Graphene</b> <b>165</b><br /><i>Judy Z.Wu</i></p> <p>3.2.1 Introduction 165</p> <p>3.2.2 Physical Properties of Intrinsic Graphene Transparent Conductors (GTCs) 167</p> <p>3.2.3 Synthesis and Characterization of Graphene Transparent Conductors 169</p> <p>3.2.3.1 Synthesis of Graphene 169</p> <p>3.2.3.1.1 Solution Synthesis of Graphene 169</p> <p>3.2.3.1.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition of Graphene on Metal Foils 170</p> <p>3.2.3.1.3 Direct Growth of Graphene on Dielectric Substrates 171</p> <p>3.2.3.2 Characterization of GTC Properties 174</p> <p>3.2.3.3 GTC Interface with Other Materials in Heterostructures 175</p> <p>3.2.3.3.1 EngineeringWork Function of Graphene 175</p> <p>3.2.3.3.2 Efficient Charge Transfer Across van derWaals Heterojunction Interface 176</p> <p>3.2.4 Applications of Graphene Transparent Conductors 178</p> <p>3.2.4.1 Photodetectors 178</p> <p>3.2.4.2 Photovoltaics 180</p> <p>3.2.4.2.1 Dye Sensitizer Solar Cells on GTC 180</p> <p>3.2.4.2.2 Organic Solar Cells on GTC 181</p> <p>3.2.4.2.3 Inorganic PV on GTC 182</p> <p>3.2.4.3 Other Applications 182</p> <p>3.2.5 Conclusion and Future Remarks 183</p> <p>Acknowledgments 183</p> <p>References 183</p> <p><b>3.3 Transparent Conductive Polymers 193</b><br /><i>Jose Abad and Javier Padilla</i></p> <p>3.3.1 Introduction 193</p> <p>3.3.1.1 About the Figure of Merit (FoM) 194</p> <p>3.3.2 Polyaniline (PANI) and Polypyrrole (PPy) 195</p> <p>3.3.2.1 Polyaniline (PANI) 196</p> <p>3.3.2.2 Polypyrrole (PPy) 198</p> <p>3.3.2.3 Other Polymers 198</p> <p>3.3.3 Poly(3,4-dioxythiophene)–PEDOT 200</p> <p>3.3.3.1 Oxidative Polymerization 200</p> <p>3.3.3.2 In Situ Polymerization 200</p> <p>3.3.3.3 Vapor-phase Polymerization (VPP) 201</p> <p>3.3.3.4 Oxidative Chemical Vapor Deposition (o-CVD) 201</p> <p>3.3.3.5 Electrochemical Polymerization 201</p> <p>3.3.4 PEDOT:PSS 202</p> <p>3.3.4.1 Solvents and Additives 203</p> <p>3.3.4.2 Acids 204</p> <p>3.3.4.3 Salts, Ionic Liquids, and Zwitterions 204</p> <p>3.3.4.4 Other Approaches 207</p> <p>3.3.4.5 PSS Substitution 207</p> <p>3.3.5 Polymer–Metal Composites 208</p> <p>3.3.5.1 Ag Grid/PEDOT:PSS 208</p> <p>3.3.5.2 AgNW/PEDOT:PSS 210</p> <p>3.3.5.3 Other Film Composites 212</p> <p>3.3.6 Carbon-based Composites 212</p> <p>3.3.6.1 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 213</p> <p>3.3.6.2 Graphene Oxide (GO) and Graphene (G) 215</p> <p>3.3.7 Applications 216</p> <p>3.3.8 Summary and Perspectives 217</p> <p>References 219</p> <p><b>Part IV Characterization of Transparent Conductive Films 245</b></p> <p><b>4.1 Characterizations of Electrical Properties by the van der Pauw Method </b>247<br /><i>Yuichi Sato and ToruMatsumura</i></p> <p>4.1.1 Introduction 247</p> <p>4.1.2 Measurements of Electrical Properties by the van der Pauw Method 248</p> <p>4.1.3 Effects of Positions, Sizes, and Shapes of the Electrical Contacts Mounted on Various Shapes of Measuring Samples on the van der Pauw Measurement Values 249</p> <p>4.1.3.1 Effect of Positions and Sizes of the Electrical Contacts Mounted on a Circular Shape Measuring Sample 249</p> <p>4.1.3.2 Effects of Conditions of the Electrical Contacts in Square-shaped Measuring Samples 250</p> <p>4.1.4 Effect of Inhomogeneity Existing in Measuring Samples on the van der Pauw Measurement Values 252</p> <p>4.1.4.1 Estimations of Errors in the van der Pauw Measurement Values Concerning Inhomogeneous Materials 254</p> <p>4.1.4.2 Incorrect Determinations of the Carrier Type in the van der Pauw Measurements of Inhomogeneous ZnO 259</p> <p>4.1.5 Conclusions 260</p> <p>References 261</p> <p><b>Part V Applications </b>263</p> <p><b>5.1 Electrochromic Oxide-based Materials and Devices for Glazing in Energy-efficient Buildings </b>265<br /><i>Claes G. Granqvist</i></p> <p>5.1.1 Introduction 265</p> <p>5.1.2 Characterization of Optical Properties 267</p> <p>5.1.3 Functional Principles and Materials 268</p> <p>5.1.4 The Role of Nanostructure 270</p> <p>5.1.5 Optical Properties 272</p> <p>5.1.6 Case Study: Flexible Electrochromic Foil 275</p> <p>5.1.7 Recent Development: Durability Assessment and Rejuvenation of Electrochromic Thin Films 282</p> <p>5.1.8 Some Conclusions and Perspectives 285</p> <p>References 286</p> <p><b>5.2 Transparent Electrodes for Organic Light-emitting Diodes </b>301<br /><i>Shigeki Naka</i></p> <p>5.2.1 Introduction 301</p> <p>5.2.2 Transparent Electrodes for Anode 303</p> <p>5.2.3 Conducting Polymers 304</p> <p>5.2.4 Dielectric/Metal/Dielectric Electrodes 304</p> <p>5.2.5 Buffer Layer for Anode 308</p> <p>5.2.6 Transparent Electrodes for Cathode 309</p> <p>5.2.7 Buffer Layer for Cathode 310</p> <p>5.2.8 Carrier Injection at Organic/Electrode Interface 311</p> <p>5.2.9 Issue of Transparent Electrode for OLEDs 312</p> <p>5.2.10 Conclusions 314</p> <p>References 314</p> <p><b>5.3 Dye-sensitized Devices: Photovoltaic and Photoelectrolytic Applications </b>317<br /><i>José A. Solera-Rojas,Marisol Ledezma-Gairaud, and LeslieW. Pineda</i></p> <p>5.3.1 Introduction 317</p> <p>5.3.2 Properties of Titanium Dioxide 319</p> <p>5.3.2.1 Structural Properties 319</p> <p>5.3.2.2 Electronic Considerations 320</p> <p>5.3.2.3 Optical Features 322</p> <p>5.3.3 Surface Modification of TiO2 323</p> <p>5.3.3.1 Chemical Modifications 324</p> <p>5.3.3.1.1 Doping 324</p> <p>5.3.3.1.2 Chemical Modification at the TiO2 Surface 324</p> <p>5.3.3.1.3 Organometallic Dyes for Sensitization 324</p> <p>5.3.4 Bridge-like Molecules to Immobilize SensitizerMolecules in Nanoparticulate TiO2 326</p> <p>5.3.5 Applications for the Development of Photoelectrochemical Cells in Water Oxidation Reaction 329</p> <p>5.3.6 Concluding Remarks 331</p> <p>Acknowledgments 331</p> <p>References 332</p> <p><b>5.4 SmartWindows Based on Liquid Crystal Dispersions </b>337<br /><i>Erick Castellón and David Levy</i></p> <p>5.4.1 Introduction 337</p> <p>5.4.2 Liquid Crystals 337</p> <p>5.4.3 Liquid Crystal Dispersion Materials as Smart-window Devices 342</p> <p>5.4.4 Parameters of Electrooptical Performance in LC-dispersion-based SmartWindows 345</p> <p>5.4.5 Polymer-dispersed Liquid Crystals 346</p> <p>5.4.5.1 Colloidal Method 347</p> <p>5.4.5.2 Solvent-induced Phase Separation 348</p> <p>5.4.5.3 Temperature-induced Phase Separation 348</p> <p>5.4.5.4 Polymerization-induced Phase Separation 348</p> <p>5.4.6 Polymer-stabilized Liquid Crystals 351</p> <p>5.4.7 Gel-glass-dispersed Liquid Crystals 352</p> <p>5.4.7.1 Sol–Gel Chemistry 352</p> <p>5.4.7.2 Liquid Crystal Dispersions in Sol–Gel Materials 353</p> <p>5.4.8 Other Liquid Crystal-dispersion Devices 355</p> <p>5.4.9 Conclusion 356</p> <p>References 357</p> <p>Concluding Remarks 367<br /><i>Castellón Erick and David Levy</i></p> <p>Index 369</p>