<p>Preface xiii</p> <p><b>1 Introduction to Oilfield Metallurgy and Corrosion Control 1</b></p> <p>Costs, 1</p> <p>Safety, 2</p> <p>Environmental Damage, 2</p> <p>Corrosion Control, 3</p> <p>References, 3</p> <p><b>2 Chemistry of Corrosion 5</b></p> <p>Electrochemistry of Corrosion, 5</p> <p>Electrochemical Reactions, 5</p> <p>Electrolyte Conductivity, 6</p> <p>Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis, 6</p> <p>Electrode Potentials and Current, 6</p> <p>Corrosion Rate Expressions, 10</p> <p>pH, 10</p> <p>Passivity, 11</p> <p>Potential‐pH (Pourbaix) Diagrams, 11</p> <p>Summary, 12</p> <p>References, 12</p> <p><b>3 Corrosive Environments 15</b></p> <p>External Environments, 16</p> <p>Atmospheric Corrosion, 17</p> <p>Water as a Corrosive Environment, 18</p> <p>Soils as Corrosive Environments, 20</p> <p>Corrosion Under Insulation, 21</p> <p>Internal Environments, 24</p> <p>Crude Oil, 24</p> <p>Natural Gas, 25</p> <p>Oxygen, 26</p> <p>Carbon Dioxide, 26</p> <p>Hydrogen Sulfide, 29</p> <p>Organic Acids, 32</p> <p>Scale, 33</p> <p>Microbially Influenced Corrosion (MIC), 36</p> <p>Mercury, 41</p> <p>Hydrates, 41</p> <p>Fluid Flow Effects on Corrosion, 41</p> <p>Summary, 41</p> <p>References, 42</p> <p><b>4 Materials 47</b></p> <p>Metallurgy Fundamentals, 47</p> <p>Crystal Structure, 47</p> <p>Material Defects, Inclusions, and Precipitates, 48</p> <p>Strengthening Methods, 50</p> <p>Mechanical Properties, 51</p> <p>Forming Methods, 60</p> <p>Castings, 60</p> <p>Wrought Metal Products, 60</p> <p>Welding, 61</p> <p>Clad Metals, 65</p> <p>Additive Manufacturing, 65</p> <p>Materials Specifications, 65</p> <p>API – The American Petroleum Institute, 66</p> <p>AISI – The American Iron and Steel Institute, 66</p> <p>ASTM International (Formerly the American Society for Testing and Materials), 66</p> <p>ASME – The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 67</p> <p>SAE International (Formerly the Society of Automotive Engineers), 67</p> <p>UNS – The Universal Numbering System, 67</p> <p>NACE – The Corrosion Society (Formerly the National Association of Corrosion Engineers), 68</p> <p>Other Organizations, 68</p> <p>Use of Materials Specifications, 68</p> <p>Carbon Steels, Cast Irons, and Low‐Alloy Steels, 69</p> <p>Classifications of Carbon Steels, 71</p> <p>Alloying Elements and Their Influence on Properties of Steel, 72</p> <p>Strengthening Methods for Carbon Steels, 74</p> <p>Quench and Tempered (Q&T) Steels, 75</p> <p>Carbon Equivalents and Weldability, 76</p> <p>Cleanliness of Steel, 76</p> <p>Cast Irons, 76</p> <p>Corrosion‐Resistant Alloys (CRAs), 77</p> <p>Iron–Nickel Alloys, 77</p> <p>Stainless Steels, 78</p> <p>Nickel‐based Alloys, 83</p> <p>Cobalt‐based Alloys, 84</p> <p>Titanium Alloys, 84</p> <p>Copper Alloys, 86</p> <p>Aluminum Alloys, 89</p> <p>Additional Considerations with CRAs, 91</p> <p>Polymers, Elastomers, and Composites, 93</p> <p>Materials Selection Guidelines, 97</p> <p>References, 97</p> <p><b>5 Forms of Corrosion 101</b></p> <p>Introduction, 101</p> <p>General Corrosion, 102</p> <p>Galvanic Corrosion, 104</p> <p>Galvanic Coupling of Two or More Metals, 104</p> <p>Area Ratio, 105</p> <p>Metallurgically Induced Galvanic Corrosion, 107</p> <p>Environmentally Induced Galvanic Corrosion, 109</p> <p>Polarity Reversal, 111</p> <p>Conductivity of the Electrolyte, 111</p> <p>Control of Galvanic Corrosion, 111</p> <p>Pitting Corrosion, 112</p> <p>Occluded Cell Corrosion, 113</p> <p>Pitting Corrosion Geometry and Stress Concentration, 114</p> <p>Pitting Initiation, 115</p> <p>Pitting Resistance Equivalent Numbers (PRENs), 115</p> <p>Pitting Statistics, 116</p> <p>Prevention of Pitting Corrosion, 117</p> <p>Crevice Corrosion, 117</p> <p>Corrosion Under Pipe Supports (CUPS), 119</p> <p>Pack Rust, 120</p> <p>Crevice Corrosion Mechanisms, 121</p> <p>Alloy Selection, 121</p> <p>Filiform Corrosion, 122</p> <p>Intergranular Corrosion, 123</p> <p>Stainless Steels, 123</p> <p>Corrosion Parallel to Forming Directions, 124</p> <p>Aluminum, 124</p> <p>Other Alloys, 125</p> <p>Dealloying, 125</p> <p>Mechanism, 125</p> <p>Selective Phase Attack, 126</p> <p>Susceptible Alloys, 126</p> <p>Control, 126</p> <p>Erosion Corrosion, 127</p> <p>Mechanism, 127</p> <p>Velocity Effects and ANSI/API RP14E, 128</p> <p>Materials, 130</p> <p>Cavitation, 130</p> <p>Areas of Concern, 131</p> <p>Erosion and Erosion‐corrosion Control, 133</p> <p>Environmentally Assisted Cracking, 134</p> <p>Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC), 135</p> <p>Hydrogen Embrittlement and H2S‐related Cracking, 139</p> <p>Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME), 143</p> <p>Corrosion Fatigue, 143</p> <p>Other Forms of Corrosion Important to Oilfield Operations, 145</p> <p>Oxygen Attack, 145</p> <p>Sweet Corrosion, 145</p> <p>Sour Corrosion, 145</p> <p>Mesa Corrosion, 145</p> <p>Top‐of‐Line (TOL) Corrosion, 145</p> <p>Channeling Corrosion, 146</p> <p>Grooving Corrosion: Selective Seam Corrosion, 148</p> <p>Wireline Corrosion, 148</p> <p>Additional Forms of Corrosion Found in Oil and Gas Operations, 148</p> <p>Additional Comments, 152</p> <p>References, 153</p> <p><b>6 Corrosion Control 159</b></p> <p>Protective Coatings, 159</p> <p>Paint Components, 159</p> <p>Coating Systems, 160</p> <p>Corrosion Protection by Paint Films, 160</p> <p>Desirable Properties of Protective Coating Systems, 161</p> <p>Developments in Coatings Technology, 162</p> <p>Surface Preparation, 162</p> <p>Purposes of Various Coatings, 166</p> <p>Generic Binder Classifications, 167</p> <p>Coatings Suitable for Various Service Environments or Applications, 169</p> <p>Coatings Inspection, 169</p> <p>Areas of Concern and Inspection Concentration, 174</p> <p>Linings, Wraps, Greases, and Waxes, 176</p> <p>Coatings Failures, 180</p> <p>Metallic Coatings, 189</p> <p>Useful Publications, 192</p> <p>Water Treatment and Corrosion Inhibition, 192</p> <p>Oil Production Techniques, 193</p> <p>Water Analysis, 193</p> <p>Gas Stripping and Vacuum Deaeration, 194</p> <p>Corrosion Inhibitors, 194</p> <p>Cathodic Protection, 199</p> <p>How Cathodic Protection Works, 201</p> <p>Types of Cathodic Protection, 203</p> <p>Cathodic Protection Criteria, 214</p> <p>Inspection and Monitoring, 216</p> <p>Cathodic Protection Design, 220</p> <p>Additional Topics Related to Cathodic Protection, 224</p> <p>Summary of Cathodic Protection, 227</p> <p>Standards for Cathodic Protection, 227</p> <p>References, 228</p> <p><b>7 Inspection, Monitoring, and Testing 233</b></p> <p>Inspection, 235</p> <p>Visual Inspection (VT), 235</p> <p>Penetrant Testing (PT), 236</p> <p>Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT), 237</p> <p>Ultrasonic Inspection (UT), 237</p> <p>Radiography (RT), 238</p> <p>Eddy Current Inspection, 240</p> <p>Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) Inspection, 241</p> <p>Positive Material Identification (PMI), 242</p> <p>Thermography, 242</p> <p>Additional Remarks About Inspection, 243</p> <p>Monitoring, 244</p> <p>Monitoring Probes, 244</p> <p>Electrochemical Corrosion Rate Monitoring Techniques, 250</p> <p>Hydrogen Probes, 253</p> <p>Sand Monitoring, 254</p> <p>Fluid Analysis, 255</p> <p>Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM), 257</p> <p>Additional Comments on Monitoring, 258</p> <p>Testing, 258</p> <p>Hydrostatic Testing, 258</p> <p>Laboratory and Field Trial Testing, 260</p> <p>References, 262</p> <p><b>8 Oilfield Equipment 265</b></p> <p>Drilling and Exploration, 265</p> <p>Drill Pipe, 265</p> <p>Tool Joints, 268</p> <p>Blowout Preventers (BOPs), 268</p> <p>Wells and Wellhead Equipment, 269</p> <p>History of Production, 270</p> <p>Downhole Corrosive Environments, 271</p> <p>Annular Spaces, 275</p> <p>Types of Wells, 275</p> <p>Tubing, Casing, and Capillary Tubing, 277</p> <p>Corrosion Inhibitors for Tubing and Casing in Production Wells, 280</p> <p>Internally Coated Tubing for Oilfield Wells, 283</p> <p>Wireline, 285</p> <p>Coiled Tubing, 285</p> <p>Material and Corrosion Concerns with Artificial Lift Systems, 286</p> <p>Facilities and Surface Equipment, 291</p> <p>Piping, 291</p> <p>Storage Tanks, 293</p> <p>Heat Exchangers, 297</p> <p>Other Equipment, 301</p> <p>Bolting, Studs, and Fasteners, 301</p> <p>Problems with Bolted Connections, 306</p> <p>International Bolting Standards, 307</p> <p>Flares, 312</p> <p>Corrosion Under Insulation, 312</p> <p>Pipelines and Flowlines, 319</p> <p>Pipeline Problems and Failures, 319</p> <p>Forms of Corrosion Important in Pipelines and Flowlines, 321</p> <p>Repairs and Derating Due to Corrosion, 323</p> <p>Casings for Road and Railway Crossings, 323</p> <p>Pipeline and Flowline Materials, 324</p> <p>Pipeline Hydrotesting, 326</p> <p>Seawater Injection Pipelines/Flowlines, 327</p> <p>External Corrosion of Pipelines, 327</p> <p>Internal Corrosion of Pipelines, 330</p> <p>Inspection, Condition Assessment, and Testing, 332</p> <p>Offshore and Marine Applications, 336</p> <p>Offshore Pipelines, 336</p> <p>Offshore Structures, 337</p> <p>References, 342</p> <p>Index</p>