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<p>List of Figures xvii</p> <p>List of Tables xxvii</p> <p>Foreword xxxi</p> <p>Acknowledgments xxxiii</p> <p><b>1 Introduction 1</b></p> <p>1.1 Energy and the Shale Revolution 1</p> <p>1.2 Cultural Influences 3</p> <p>1.3 Conventional Versus Unconventional Resources 4</p> <p>1.4 Well Simulation 5</p> <p>1.5 Hydraulic Fracturing in the United States 16</p> <p>1.6 Environmental Considerations 17</p> <p>1.7 Exercises 22</p> <p>References 22</p> <p>Suggested Reading 23</p> <p><b>2 Historical Development from Fracturing to Hydraulic Fracturing 25</b></p> <p>2.1 Introduction 25</p> <p>2.2 Explosives and Guns (1820s–1930s) 26</p> <p>2.3 The Birth of the Petroleum Engineer (1940s–1950s) 38</p> <p>2.4 Going Nuclear During Peak Oil (1960s to Mid‐1970s) 39</p> <p>2.5 The Rise of the Unconventionals (Mid‐1970s to Present) 45</p> <p>2.6 Exercises 49</p> <p>References 50</p> <p>Suggested Reading 51</p> <p><b>3 Geology of Unconventional Resources 53</b></p> <p>3.1 Introduction 53</p> <p>3.2 Oil Shale Nomenclature 54</p> <p>3.3 Oil Shale Classification 54</p> <p>3.4 Types of Shale Formations Based on Production 56</p> <p>3.5 Geology of United States Shale Deposits 60</p> <p>3.6 The Role of Natural Fractures 75</p> <p>3.7 Exercises 76</p> <p>References 77</p> <p>Suggested Reading 79</p> <p><b>4 Overview of Drilling and Hydraulic Fracture Stimulation Techniques for Tight Oil and Gas Shale Formations 81</b></p> <p>4.1 Introduction 81</p> <p>4.2 Phase 1: Prospect Generation for Unconventional Oil and Gas Targets 85</p> <p>4.3 Phase 2: Planning Phase 92</p> <p>4.4 Phase 3: Drilling 94</p> <p>4.5 Brief Overview of Hydraulic Fracturing 109</p> <p>4.6 Operators and Contractors 111</p> <p>4.7 Phase 4: Completion 111</p> <p>4.8 Overview of Hydraulic Fracturing Process 115</p> <p>4.9 Single‐Stage Treatment 119</p> <p>4.10 Fluid Recovery and Waste Management 123</p> <p>4.11 Oil and Gas Production 123</p> <p>4.12 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) 126</p> <p>4.13 Workshop #1: Gas Well Economic Limit 128</p> <p>4.14 Workshop #2: Oil Well Economics 129</p> <p>4.15 Well Destruction 129</p> <p>4.16 Summary 131</p> <p>4.17 Exercises 131</p> <p>References 132</p> <p>Suggested Reading 134</p> <p><b>5 Overview of Impacts from Tight Oil and Shale Gas Resource Development 137</b></p> <p>5.1 Introduction 137</p> <p>5.2 Potential Impacts and Risks of Spills 137</p> <p>5.3 Significance of Impacts 137</p> <p>5.4 Overview of the Five Main Resource Categories 138</p> <p>5.5 Primary Wastes Generated 146</p> <p>5.6 Site‐specific Impact Analysis 146</p> <p>5.7 Summary of Resources and Issues 163</p> <p>5.8 Summary 174</p> <p>5.9 Exercises 176</p> <p>References 177</p> <p>Suggested Reading 179</p> <p><b>6 Surface and Groundwater Risks, Resource Quality Management, and Impacts 183</b></p> <p>6.1 Introduction 183</p> <p>6.2 The Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle 183</p> <p>6.3 Potential Impacts on Drinking Water Resources 188</p> <p>6.4 Public Water System (PWS) Sources 189</p> <p>6.5 Underground Injection Control 190</p> <p>6.6 Case Histories 196</p> <p>6.7 Exercises 198</p> <p>References 198</p> <p>Suggested Reading 199</p> <p><b>7 Induced Seismicity 203</b></p> <p>7.1 Introduction 203</p> <p>7.2 Measuring Earthquake Severity 204</p> <p>7.3 Anthropogenic‐Induced Earthquakes 208</p> <p>7.4 Mechanics of Anthropogenic‐Induced Earthquakes 210</p> <p>7.5 Induced Microseismicity and Microseismic Monitoring 212</p> <p>7.6 Exercises 212</p> <p>References 213</p> <p>Suggested Reading 213</p> <p><b>8 Air Quality Resources and Mitigation Measures 215</b></p> <p>8.1 Introduction 215</p> <p>8.2 Unconventional Resource Extraction and Air Quality 215</p> <p>8.3 Sources of Air Emissions 215</p> <p>8.4 Worker Safety 220</p> <p>8.5 Gas Leaks and Vapor Sampling 230</p> <p>8.6 Biogenic and Thermogenic Hydrocarbon Gases 232</p> <p>8.7 Gas Leaks 233</p> <p>8.8 Soil Vapor Intrusion Overview 234</p> <p>8.9 General Approach to Evaluating Soil Vapor Intrusion 237</p> <p>8.10 Summary 248</p> <p>8.11 Exercises 249</p> <p>References 249</p> <p>Suggested Reading 253</p> <p><b>9 Land Use Resources and Socioeconomics 255</b></p> <p>9.1 Introduction 255</p> <p>9.2 Community Concerns and Land Use Planning 255</p> <p>9.3 Environmental Justice 259</p> <p>9.4 Land Disturbance 259</p> <p>9.5 Light Pollution 261</p> <p>9.6 Noise 263</p> <p>9.7 Odor 270</p> <p>9.8 Socioeconomics 271</p> <p>9.9 Transportation and Traffic 272</p> <p>9.10 Visual Aesthetics 277</p> <p>9.11 Worker Safety 278</p> <p>9.12 Cumulative Impacts 278</p> <p>9.13 Exercises 279</p> <p>References 279</p> <p>Suggested Reading 281</p> <p><b>10 Ecological Resources 283</b></p> <p>10.1 Introduction 283</p> <p>10.2 Ecosystem Resources 283</p> <p>10.3 Ecosystem Resources 283</p> <p>10.4 Interim Reclamation 286</p> <p>10.5 Summary 295</p> <p>10.6 Exercises 295</p> <p>References 296</p> <p>Suggested Reading 297</p> <p><b>11 Legislative Trends Associated with Well Stimulation and Hydraulic Fracturing 299</b></p> <p>11.1 Introduction 299</p> <p>11.2 Federal Laws and Regulations 300</p> <p>11.3 State Legislation and Regulations 304</p> <p>11.4 Bans and Moratoriums 311</p> <p>11.5 Exercises 313</p> <p>References 313</p> <p>Suggested Reading 314</p> <p><b>12 Sampling, Exposure Pathways, and Site Conceptual Models 315</b></p> <p>12.1 Introduction 315</p> <p>12.2 Hypothetical Scenario 317</p> <p>12.3 Overview of Sampling Procedures 322</p> <p>12.4 Soil and Water Sampling 327</p> <p>12.5 Field Screening and Analysis 329</p> <p>12.6 Other Considerations 332</p> <p>12.7 Fate and Transport 339</p> <p>12.8 Summary 342</p> <p>12.9 Exercises 342</p> <p>References 345</p> <p>Suggested Reading 347</p> <p><b>13 Financial Issues: Real Estate Values and Selected Contracting Costs of Repairs, Assessment, or Mitigation Activities for Unconventional Oil and Gas Production Areas 351</b></p> <p>13.1 Introduction 351</p> <p>13.2 Valuation of Real Estate 351</p> <p>13.3 Water Supplies 357</p> <p>13.4 Other Mitigating Costs 358</p> <p>13.5 Mitigation of Subsurface Impacts 362</p> <p>13.6 Remediation Strategies 365</p> <p>13.7 Budgeting for Costs 369</p> <p>13.8 Summary 372</p> <p>13.9 Exercises 373</p> <p>References 374</p> <p>Suggested Reading 375</p> <p><b>14 Legal Considerations and Case Law 377</b></p> <p>14.1 Introduction 377</p> <p>14.2 Environmental Tort Litigation 382</p> <p>14.3 Environmental/Citizen Action and Industry Challenges Litigation 383</p> <p>14.4 Infrastructure‐Related Litigation 384</p> <p>14.5 Traditional Oil and Gas Issues in Nontraditional Forums 384</p> <p>14.6 Fracking Bans and Moratoriums 384</p> <p>14.7 Summary 386</p> <p>14.8 Exercises 387</p> <p>Reference 387</p> <p>Suggested Reading 387</p> <p><b>15 Spills, Forensic Evaluation, and Case Studies 389</b></p> <p>15.1 Introduction 389</p> <p>15.2 Spill Studies 389</p> <p>15.3 Spill Settlement Case Study 392</p> <p>15.3.1 Rail Case Studies 393</p> <p>15.3.2 Bakken Crude Oil Characteristics: Two Studies 394</p> <p>15.3.3 Summary of Bakken Crude Oil Spill Incidents 394</p> <p>15.3.4 Fate and Transport of Spilled Crude 394</p> <p>15.3.5 Combustion 398</p> <p>15.3.6 DOT‐117 Tank Car Design 398</p> <p>15.4 Violations 399</p> <p>15.5 Forensic Analysis 399</p> <p>15.5.1 Gas Chromatograms 400</p> <p>15.5.2 Tentatively Identified Compounds (TICs) 401</p> <p>15.5.3 Piper Diagrams 401</p> <p>15.5.4 Biomarkers 403</p> <p>15.5.5 Chemical and Biological Transformations 404</p> <p>15.5.6 Chemical Ratios 406</p> <p>15.5.7 Geochemical Tracers 406</p> <p>15.5.8 Isotopes 407</p> <p>15.5.9 Forensic Isotope Analysis 408</p> <p>15.5.10 Boron and Strontium Isotope Ratios 409</p> <p>15.5.11 Radioactive Isotopes 410</p> <p>15.5.12 Case Studies 411</p> <p>15.6 Prospective and Retrospective Case Studies 413</p> <p>15.6.1 US EPA Retrospective Case Study 414</p> <p>15.6.2 US EPA Retrospective Study Approach and Sampling Activities 415</p> <p>15.6.3 Main Findings 420</p> <p>15.6.4 Summary of US EPA Retrospective Studies 438</p> <p>15.7 Exercises 439</p> <p>References 440</p> <p>Suggested Reading 446</p> <p><b>16 Conclusions 453</b></p> <p>Appendix A Selected University Studies, State, and Federal Reports 455</p> <p>Appendix B Glossary 461</p> <p>Appendix C List of Acronyms and Abbreviations 467</p> <p>Appendix D Conversions 473</p> <p>Appendix E Summary of Potential Job Hazards During Hydraulic Fracture Stimulation Process 477</p> <p>Appendix F Chemical Additives Used in the High‐Volume Hydraulic Fracturing Operations 481</p> <p>Appendix G Exposure Planning, Emergency Response, and Toxicity Tables 485</p> <p>Appendix H Selected Sampling Methods and Documentation 493</p> <p>Appendix I Environmental Checklists 503</p> <p>Appendix J Metric Conversion of Table 3.4 (Metric Units in Bold italics) 523</p> <p>Appendix K US Crude Oil Prices 1859–2016 525</p> <p>Index 527</p>

<p><i>“…provides a road map to explore the many scientific and technical conditions that must be met in order to successfully recover hydrocarbons by hydraulic fracturing, as well as an analysis of the ways in which the technique can create environmental concerns. That is why I find this book a perfect reference.”</i></p> <p>Stephen J. Baker, The Professional Geologist, JUL.AUG.SEP 2020</p> <p> </p> <p><i>“The authors are to be commended for producing such a well-researched and documented book…This very comprehensive book is a welcome addition as it provides a resource which will help replace assumptions and opinions with facts about hydraulic fracturing.”</i></p> <p>William R. Brice, Oil-Industry History, v. 20, no. 1, 2019</p>

<p><b>JAMES A. JACOBS</b> is Principal Resource Scientist and Hydrogeologist at Clearwater Group. He is a Fulbright Senior Scholar and co-author of four environmental books and has served as an expert in a variety of oil and gas valuation and environmental contamination cases. <p><b>STEPHEN M. TESTA</b> is the former Executive Officer of the California State Mining and Geology Board and past president of the American Geosciences Institute, Environmental Geosciences and Energy Minerals Division of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, American Institute of Professional Geologists, and Los Angeles Basin Geological Society.

<p><b>A guide to environmental and communication issues related to fracking and the best approach to protect communities</b> <p><i>Environmental Considerations Associated with Hydraulic Fracturing Operations</i> offers a much-needed resource that explores the complex challenges of fracking by providing an understanding of the environmental and communication issues that are inherent with hydraulic fracturing. The book balances the current scientific knowledge with the uncertainty and risks associated with hydraulic fracking. In addition, the authors offer targeted approaches for helping to keep communities safe. <p>The authors include an overview of the historical development of hydraulic fracturing and the technology currently employed. The book also explores the risk, prevention, and mitigation factors that are associated with fracturing. The authors also include legal cases, regulatory issues, and data on the cost of recovery. The volume presents audit checklists for gathering critical information and documentation to support the reliability of the current environmental conditions related to fracking operations and the impact fracking can have on a community. This vital resource: <ul> <li>Contains the technical information and mitigation recommendations for safety and environmental issues related to hydraulic fracturing</li> <li>Offers an historical overview of conventional and unconventional oil and gas drilling</li> <li>Explains the geologic and technical issues associated with fracking of tight sand and shale formations</li> <li>Presents numerous case studies from the United States EPA and other agencies</li> <li>Discusses issues of co-produced waste water and induced seismicity from the injection of wastewater</li> </ul> <p>Written for environmental scientists, geologists, engineers, regulators, city planners, attorneys, foresters, wildlife biologists, and others, <i>Environmental Considerations Associated with Hydraulic Fracturing Operations</i> offers a comprehensive resource to the complex environmental and communication issues related to fracking.

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