<p>Preface xv</p> <p>Acknowledgments xix</p> <p><b>Part I Fundamentals and Approaches </b><b>1</b></p> <p><b>1 An Overview of Corrosion in Oil and Gas Industry: Upstream, Midstream, and Downstream Sectors </b><b>3<br /></b><i>Yahya T. Al-Janabi</i></p> <p>1.1 Introduction 3</p> <p>1.2 Corrosion in Upstream Production Operations 4</p> <p>1.2.1 Causes of Corrosion in Upstream Environments 7</p> <p>1.2.1.1 Oxygen 8</p> <p>1.2.1.2 Hydrogen Sulfide, Polysulfides, and Sulfur 9</p> <p>1.2.1.3 Carbon Dioxide 10</p> <p>1.2.1.4 Strong Acids 11</p> <p>1.2.1.5 Concentrated Brines 11</p> <p>1.2.2 Corrosion Types in Petroleum Production Operations 11</p> <p>1.2.3 Corrosion Inhibitors for Oil and Gas Production 12</p> <p>1.2.3.1 Oil and Gas Wells 12</p> <p>1.2.3.2 Inhibitor Selection 13</p> <p>1.2.3.3 Practical Challenges with Inhibition 14</p> <p>1.2.3.4 Inhibitor Application Methods 14</p> <p>1.2.3.5 Oxygen Removal 16</p> <p>1.2.4 Problems Encountered and Protective Measures 17</p> <p>1.2.4.1 Drilling Fluid Corrosion 17</p> <p>1.2.4.2 Primary Production 18</p> <p>1.2.4.3 Corrosion in Secondary Recovery Operations 20</p> <p>1.2.5 CO<sub>2</sub> Injection 23</p> <p>1.2.6 Corrosion of Oil and Gas Offshore Production Platforms 23</p> <p>1.2.7 Corrosion of Gathering Systems and Tanks 23</p> <p>1.2.7.1 Sweet Gas Corrosion 24</p> <p>1.2.7.2 Sour Gas Corrosion 24</p> <p>1.2.7.3 Oil Wells Corrosion 24</p> <p>1.3 Corrosion in Midstream Sector 25</p> <p>1.3.1 Control of Internal Corrosion in Carbon Steel Oil Pipeline Systems 27</p> <p>1.3.2 Control of Internal Corrosion in Carbon Steel Gas Pipeline Systems 28</p> <p>1.3.3 Control of Internal Corrosion in Carbon Steel Water Pipeline Systems 28</p> <p>1.3.4 Chemical Inhibition of Internal Corrosion in Carbon Steel Pipeline Systems 29</p> <p>1.4 Corrosion in Downstream Sector 30</p> <p>1.4.1 Materials of Construction 31</p> <p>1.4.2 Corrosion in Refineries and Petrochemical Plants 32</p> <p>1.4.3 Corrosion Inhibitors in Refinery and Petrochemical Plants 33</p> <p>1.4.4 Corrosion Control of Water-Recirculating Systems 33</p> <p>1.4.4.1 Typical Corrosion Reactions in Water-Recirculating Systems 34</p> <p>1.4.4.2 Water Corrosivity 35</p> <p>1.4.4.3 Corrosion Control 36</p> <p>1.5 Conclusions and Outlook 37</p> <p>References 38</p> <p><b>2 Fundamentals of Corrosion and Corrosion Control in Oil and Gas Sectors </b><b>41<br /></b><i>Anil Bhardwaj</i></p> <p>2.1 Introduction 41</p> <p>2.2 Material Degradation and Corrosion 41</p> <p>2.3 Electromotive Force (EMF) Series and Galvanic Series 49</p> <p>2.4 Forms of Corrosion 51</p> <p>2.4.1 Uniform Corrosion 51</p> <p>2.4.2 Galvanic or Two-Metal Corrosion 52</p> <p>2.4.2.1 Factors Affecting Galvanic Corrosion 53</p> <p>2.4.2.2 How to Reduce Galvanic Corrosion 54</p> <p>2.4.2.3 Benefits of Galvanic Effect 54</p> <p>2.4.3 Crevice Corrosion 54</p> <p>2.4.4 Pitting 55</p> <p>2.4.5 Intergranular Corrosion 57</p> <p>2.4.6 Erosion–Corrosion 58</p> <p>2.4.7 Stress-Corrosion Cracking (SCC) 60</p> <p>2.4.8 Under-Deposit Corrosion (UDC) 61</p> <p>2.4.9 Acid Corrosion 63</p> <p>2.4.10 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion 63</p> <p>2.5 Factors Influencing Oilfield Corrosion 66</p> <p>2.5.1 Free Water and Water Composition 66</p> <p>2.5.2 Type of Oil 68</p> <p>2.5.3 Gas Composition 69</p> <p>2.5.4 Pressure Effect 70</p> <p>2.5.5 Temperature Effect 71</p> <p>2.5.6 Velocity Effect 71</p> <p>2.6 Corrosion Control 72</p> <p>2.6.1 Material Selection 72</p> <p>2.6.2 Environment Control 73</p> <p>2.6.3 Proper Design 73</p> <p>2.6.4 Chemical Treatment 73</p> <p>2.7 Conclusions and Outlook 74</p> <p>References 74</p> <p><b>3 Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry 77<br /></b><i>Mohamed A. Migahed</i></p> <p>3.1 Introduction 77</p> <p>3.2 Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Inhibition 78</p> <p>3.2.1 Influence of Temperature and Pressure 78</p> <p>3.2.2 Influence of Flow Parameters 81</p> <p>3.2.3 Effect of Natural Gases 83</p> <p>3.2.3.1 Effect of Sulfur Dioxide 83</p> <p>3.2.3.2 Effect of Hydrogen Sulfide 86</p> <p>3.2.3.3 Effect of Carbon Dioxide 88</p> <p>3.2.4 Effect of Cationic Species 91</p> <p>3.2.5 Effect of Anionic Species 91</p> <p>3.2.6 Effect of Microorganisms 96</p> <p>3.2.7 Effect of pH 98</p> <p>3.2.8 Effect of the Pre-corrosion 100</p> <p>3.3 Conclusions and Outlook 101</p> <p>References 102</p> <p><b>4 Key Materials in Oil and Gas Production and the Choice of Inhibitors </b><b>111<br /></b><i>Thiago J. Mesquita and Hervé Marchebois</i></p> <p>4.1 Introduction 111</p> <p>4.2 Materials in Oil and Gas Industry 112</p> <p>4.2.1 Carbon Steel or CRA? 112</p> <p>4.2.2 Non-metallic Materials 116</p> <p>4.3 The Choice of Corrosion Inhibitor for Oil and Gas Production 116</p> <p>4.3.1 Factors Affecting the Efficiency of Corrosion Inhibitor 117</p> <p>4.3.2 Laboratory Corrosion Inhibitor Selection 119</p> <p>4.4 Principles of CI Qualification Tests 120</p> <p>4.4.1 Bubble Test 121</p> <p>4.4.2 Partitioning Test 122</p> <p>4.4.2.1 Corrosivity of the Water Phase After Partitioning 122</p> <p>4.4.2.2 Titrability and Partitioning Coefficient 123</p> <p>4.4.3 Impact on the Process Test 124</p> <p>4.4.3.1 Emulsion Tendency 124</p> <p>4.4.3.2 Foaming Tendency 125</p> <p>4.4.4 Wheel Test 125</p> <p>4.4.5 HP Corrosion Test Loop 127</p> <p>4.4.6 HP Jet Impingement Test 128</p> <p>4.5 Conclusions and Outlook 129</p> <p>References 130</p> <p><b>5 Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry: Economic Considerations </b><b>135<br /></b><i>Anupama R. Prasad, Anupama Kunyankandy, and Abraham Joseph</i></p> <p>5.1 Introduction 135</p> <p>5.2 Corrosion: Global Economic Loss 136</p> <p>5.2.1 Historical Summary of Corrosion Cost Studies 137</p> <p>5.2.2 NACE–IMPACT: Global Corrosion Cost 138</p> <p>5.2.3 Global Corrosion Management–IMPACT Estimate 139</p> <p>5.3 Depreciation in Oil and Gas Industries 140</p> <p>5.3.1 Corrosion Attacks 140</p> <p>5.3.2 Failures and Risk Factors 141</p> <p>5.4 Fiscal Impacts 142</p> <p>5.4.1 Corrosion Costs a Lot 143</p> <p>5.5 Inhibition: Monetary Measures 144</p> <p>5.5.1 Worthy Monitoring 145</p> <p>5.5.2 Protection in Proper Way 146</p> <p>5.6 Conclusions and Outlook 147</p> <p>References 148</p> <p><b>Part II Choice of Inhibitors </b><b>151</b></p> <p><b>6 Corrosion Inhibitors for Acidizing Process in Oil and Gas Sectors </b><b>153<br /></b><i>Kashif R. Ansari, Dheeraj Singh Chauhan, Ambrish Singh, Viswanathan S. Saji, and Mumtaz A. Quraishi</i></p> <p>6.1 Introduction 153</p> <p>6.2 Acidizing Process 154</p> <p>6.2.1 Type of Oil Well Reservoirs 154</p> <p>6.2.2 Types of Acid Used 155</p> <p>6.2.3 Methods Used to Control Acidizing Process 157</p> <p>6.2.3.1 Retarded Acid Systems 157</p> <p>6.2.3.2 Gelled Acids 157</p> <p>6.2.3.3 Chemically Retarded Acids 157</p> <p>6.2.3.4 Emulsified Acids 157</p> <p>6.2.4 Acid Selection 157</p> <p>6.2.4.1 Rock-Dissolving Capacity of Acid 158</p> <p>6.2.4.2 Spending Time of Acid 158</p> <p>6.2.4.3 Solubility of Reaction Products 158</p> <p>6.2.4.4 Density and Viscosity 158</p> <p>6.2.4.5 Etching Pattern After Acidizing 158</p> <p>6.2.5 Types of Acidizing Process 159</p> <p>6.3 Application of Corrosion Inhibitors in Acidizing Processes 160</p> <p>6.4 Selected Acidizing Inhibitors 169</p> <p>6.5 Conclusions and Outlook 170</p> <p>References 171</p> <p><b>7 Corrosion Inhibitors for Sweet Oilfield Environment (CO<sub>2</sub> Corrosion) 177<br /></b><i>Ubong Eduok and Jerzy Szpunar</i></p> <p>7.1 Introduction 177</p> <p>7.2 Mechanism of CO<sub>2</sub> Corrosion 178</p> <p>7.3 Factors Affecting Sweet Corrosion 179</p> <p>7.3.1 Effects of Hydrogen Concentration (pH) and Temperature 179</p> <p>7.3.2 Effects of Flow Rate and Partial Pressure 180</p> <p>7.3.3 Effects of Molecular Oxygen and Iron Ions (Fe<sup>2+</sup>) Concentration 181</p> <p>7.4 Toward Inhibition and Control of Sweet Corrosion 181</p> <p>7.5 Altering Corrosion Kinetics with Corrosion Inhibitors 182</p> <p>7.6 Corrosion Inhibitors for Sweet Oilfield Environments 183</p> <p>7.6.1 Corrosion Inhibitors Based on Smaller Molecules 183</p> <p>7.6.1.1 Imidazoline Derivatives 183</p> <p>7.6.1.2 Cyclic Non-imidazoline Compounds 195</p> <p>7.6.1.3 Acyclic Non-imidazoline Compounds 197</p> <p>7.6.2 Corrosion Inhibitors Based on Macromolecules 210</p> <p>7.6.2.1 Polymers 210</p> <p>7.6.2.2 Plant Biomass Extracts 211</p> <p>7.6.2.3 Others 218</p> <p>7.7 Biocorrosion in Saturated CO<sub>2</sub> Media 218</p> <p>7.8 Conclusions and Outlook 219</p> <p>References 220</p> <p><b>8 Corrosion Inhibitors for Sour Oilfield Environment (H<sub>2</sub>S Corrosion) </b><b>229<br /></b><i>Saviour A. Umoren, MosesM. Solomon, and Viswanathan S. Saji</i></p> <p>8.1 Introduction 229</p> <p>8.1.1 Impact of Corrosion on Economy and Life 229</p> <p>8.1.2 Background on Sour Corrosion 230</p> <p>8.1.3 Factors Influencing Sour Corrosion 232</p> <p>8.1.3.1 Effect of H<sub>2</sub>S Concentration 232</p> <p>8.1.3.2 Effect of Temperature and Exposure Duration 233</p> <p>8.1.3.3 Effect of Flow Rate 233</p> <p>8.1.3.4 Effect of H<sub>2</sub>S Partial Pressure 233</p> <p>8.1.3.5 Effect of Fluid Chemistry 233</p> <p>8.2 Corrosion Inhibitors for Sour Oilfield Environment 233</p> <p>8.2.1 Amine-Based Inhibitors 234</p> <p>8.2.2 Imidazoline-Based Inhibitors 237</p> <p>8.2.3 Gemini Surfactant-Based Inhibitors 238</p> <p>8.2.4 Polymer-Based Inhibitors 244</p> <p>8.3 Conclusions and Outlook 247</p> <p>References 247</p> <p><b>9 Corrosion Inhibitors for Refinery Operations </b><b>255<br /></b><i>Yahya T. Al-Janabi</i></p> <p>9.1 Introduction 255</p> <p>9.2 Areas/Units Where Inhibitors are in Demand in Refineries 257</p> <p>9.2.1 Atmospheric and Vacuum Crude Oil Distillation Units 257</p> <p>9.2.2 Fluid Catalytic Cracking: Coker 259</p> <p>9.2.3 Hydroprocessing 260</p> <p>9.2.4 Catalytic Reforming 260</p> <p>9.2.5 Amine (Acid Gas Treatment) Plants 262</p> <p>9.2.6 Support Units 262</p> <p>9.3 Types of Aggressive Species Encountered in Refineries 262</p> <p>9.3.1 Air 263</p> <p>9.3.2 Water 263</p> <p>9.3.3 Hydrogen Sulfide 263</p> <p>9.3.4 Hydrogen Chloride 263</p> <p>9.3.5 Nitrogen Compounds 264</p> <p>9.3.6 Sour Water 264</p> <p>9.4 Common Types of Inhibitors Employed/Reported in Refinery Units 264</p> <p>9.4.1 Neutralizers 264</p> <p>9.4.2 Filming Inhibitors 265</p> <p>9.5 Conclusions and Outlook 268</p> <p>References 268</p> <p><b>10 Inhibitors for High-Temperature Corrosion in Oil and Gas Fields </b><b>271<br /></b><i>Vitalis I. Chukwuike and Rakesh C. Barik</i></p> <p>10.1 Introduction 271</p> <p>10.2 High-Temperature Corrosion in Oil and Gas Fields 272</p> <p>10.3 Mechanism of High-Temperature Corrosion in Oil and Gas Field 273</p> <p>10.3.1 High-Temperature Oxidation 274</p> <p>10.3.2 High-Temperature Sulfidation 276</p> <p>10.3.3 High-Temperature Carburization 276</p> <p>10.3.4 High-Temperature Chlorination 277</p> <p>10.3.5 High-Temperature Nitridation 277</p> <p>10.3.6 Sulfidation–Oxidation 278</p> <p>10.3.7 Corrosion Due to Formation of Ash, Deposits, and Molten Salts 278</p> <p>10.4 Categories and Choice of Inhibitors for Oil and Gas High-Temperature Corrosion 278</p> <p>10.4.1 Calcium Carbonate Scale and Ash Deposit Inhibitors 278</p> <p>10.4.2 High-Temperature Acidization Corrosion Inhibitors 279</p> <p>10.4.3 High-Temperature Naphthenic Acid Corrosion Inhibitors 283</p> <p>10.4.4 Other Inhibitors of High-Temperature Corrosion 285</p> <p>10.5 Conclusions and Outlook 286</p> <p>References 287</p> <p><b>11 Experience in Using Chemicals to Mitigate Corrosion in Difficult Corrosive Environments in the Oil and Gas Industry </b><b>289<br /></b><i>Sunder Ramachandran</i></p> <p>11.1 Introduction 289</p> <p>11.2 Corrosion Inhibition for Systems with High Amounts of H<sub>2</sub>S 290</p> <p>11.3 Corrosion Inhibition for CO<sub>2</sub> Tertiary Flood Systems and CO<sub>2 </sub>Sequestration 292</p> <p>11.4 Corrosion Inhibition in Deepwater Systems 295</p> <p>11.5 Corrosion Inhibition at High Temperatures 296</p> <p>11.6 Conclusions and Outlook 297</p> <p>References 298</p> <p><b>12 Polymeric Corrosion Inhibitors for Oil and Gas Industry </b><b>303<br /></b><i>Saviour A. Umoren and Moses M. Solomon</i></p> <p>12.1 Introduction 303</p> <p>12.2 Polymeric Corrosion Inhibitors 304</p> <p>12.2.1 Polymeric Inhibitors for Chemical Cleaning 304</p> <p>12.2.2 Inhibitors for Acidization Process 308</p> <p>12.2.3 Inhibitors for Sweet and Sour Environments 311</p> <p>12.2.4 Inhibitors for High-Temperature Applications 315</p> <p>12.3 Conclusions and Outlook 315</p> <p>References 317</p> <p><b>13 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry </b><b>321<br /></b><i>Bhawna Chugh, Sanjeeve Thakur, and Ashish Kumar Singh</i></p> <p>13.1 Introduction 321</p> <p>13.2 Biofilm Formation 322</p> <p>13.3 Microbial Communities Related to Corrosion 323</p> <p>13.3.1 Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria 323</p> <p>13.3.2 Iron-Oxidizing Bacteria 324</p> <p>13.3.3 Acid-Producing Bacteria 324</p> <p>13.3.4 Sulfur-Oxidizing Bacteria 325</p> <p>13.3.5 Slime-Forming Bacteria 325</p> <p>13.4 Potential Prevention Strategies 325</p> <p>13.4.1 Periodic Pigging 325</p> <p>13.4.2 Cleanliness 326</p> <p>13.4.3 Cathodic Protection and Coatings 326</p> <p>13.4.4 Biocides/Inhibitors 327</p> <p>13.4.5 Biological Treatment 328</p> <p>13.5 Recent Developments of Chemical Inhibitors to Mitigate MIC 329</p> <p>13.6 Biological Inhibition of MIC 329</p> <p>13.6.1 Corrosion Inhibition by Nitrate-Reducing Bacteria 329</p> <p>13.6.2 Corrosion Inhibition by Regenerative Biofilms 331</p> <p>13.6.2.1 Corrosion Inhibition by Eviction of Corrosive Agents 331</p> <p>13.6.2.2 Corrosion Inhibition by Formation of Protective Barrier Layer 332</p> <p>13.6.2.3 Corrosion Inhibition via Antimicrobial Producing Biofilm 332</p> <p>13.6.2.4 Corrosion Possessing Biofilm Secreted Corrosion Inhibitor 333</p> <p>13.6.2.5 Corrosion Inhibition with Biofilm Secreted Bio Surfactant 333</p> <p>13.7 Conclusions and Outlook 333</p> <p>References 334</p> <p><b>14 Vapor Phase Corrosion Inhibitors for Oil and Gas Field Applications </b><b>339<br /></b><i>Benjamín Valdez-Salas, Michael Schorr-Wiener, and Nelson Cheng</i></p> <p>14.1 Introduction 339</p> <p>14.2 Magna International VPCIs 340</p> <p>14.3 Corrosion and Its Control in OGI 341</p> <p>14.3.1 Fundamentals of Corrosion 341</p> <p>14.3.2 Oil and Gas Industries 342</p> <p>14.3.3 OGI Sectors 343</p> <p>14.3.4 Corrosiveness of Oil and Gas Products 345</p> <p>14.3.5 Metals and Alloys in OGI 346</p> <p>14.4 Vapor Phase Corrosion Inhibitors 346</p> <p>14.4.1 Fundamentals 346</p> <p>14.4.2 VPCI Application in OGI 348</p> <p>14.4.3 Testing and Monitoring of VPCI 349</p> <p>14.4.4 Research and Development 350</p> <p>14.5 Conclusions and Outlook 353</p> <p>Acknowledgments 353</p> <p>References 353</p> <p><b>15 Mechanisms of Inhibitor Action: Passivation and Self-Healing </b><b>359<br /></b><i>Ivana Jevremovi</i><i>ć, Ying-Hsuan Chen, Abdulrahman Altin, and Andreas Erbe</i></p> <p>15.1 Introduction 359</p> <p>15.2 Systematics and Phenomenology 360</p> <p>15.3 Surface Active Inhibitors 364</p> <p>15.4 Case Study (1): Imidazoline-Based Surfactant for Mitigation of Mild Steel Corrosion in the Presence of CO<sub>2</sub> 367</p> <p>15.5 Case Study (2): The Interaction of 2-Mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) with Copper 369</p> <p>15.6 Case Study (3): β-Cyclodextrin Facilitates Release of Inhibitors 372</p> <p>15.7 Conclusions and Outlook 375</p> <p>References 376</p> <p><b>Part III Interaction with Co-additives </b><b>383</b></p> <p><b>16 Antiscalants and Their Compatibility with Corrosion Inhibitors </b><b>385<br /></b><i>Qiwei Wang and Tao Chen</i></p> <p>16.1 Introduction 385</p> <p>16.2 Scale Formation 385</p> <p>16.3 Scale Mitigation Strategy 388</p> <p>16.3.1 Flow Control 388</p> <p>16.3.2 Fluid Alteration 388</p> <p>16.3.3 Deposit Removal 388</p> <p>16.3.4 Chemical Inhibition 388</p> <p>16.4 Antiscalant Chemistry 389</p> <p>16.5 Antiscalant Function Mechanisms 393</p> <p>16.5.1 Nucleation Inhibition 393</p> <p>16.5.2 Crystal Growth Retardation 394</p> <p>16.5.3 Crystal Shape Modification 395</p> <p>16.5.4 Dispersion 395</p> <p>16.6 Antiscalant Treatment 396</p> <p>16.7 Compatibility with Corrosion Inhibitors 397</p> <p>16.7.1 Impact of Corrosion Inhibitor on Antiscalant Performance 398</p> <p>16.7.2 Impact of Antiscalant on Corrosion Inhibitor Performance 399</p> <p>16.8 Conclusions and Outlook 399</p> <p>References 400</p> <p><b>17 Hydrate Inhibitors and Their Interferences in Corrosion Inhibition </b><b>407<br /></b><i>Yutaek Seo</i></p> <p>17.1 Introduction 407</p> <p>17.2 Gas Hydrate Blockage Formation Process 407</p> <p>17.3 Hydrates Inhibition Strategies with Alcohols or Glycols 409</p> <p>17.4 Kinetic Hydrate Inhibitors 412</p> <p>17.5 Interaction Between Hydrate and Corrosion Inhibitors 414</p> <p>17.6 Conclusions and Outlook 416</p> <p>References 416</p> <p><b>18 Sulfide Scavengers and Their Interference in Corrosion Inhibition </b><b>421<br /></b><i>Viswanathan S. Saji</i></p> <p>18.1 Introduction 421</p> <p>18.2 Sulfide Scavengers: Types and Properties 422</p> <p>18.3 Corrosion and Fouling Inhibiting/Inducing Properties of Scavengers and Their Compatibility with Co-additives 424</p> <p>18.4 Conclusions and Outlook 427</p> <p>References 428</p> <p>Index 433</p>