Contents
Cover
Title page
Copyright page
Dedication
Preface
Chapter 1: Virgin and Recycled Polymers Applied to Advanced Nanocomposites
1.1 Introduction
References
Chapter 2: Biodegradable Polymer–Carbon Nanotube Composites for Water and Wastewater Treatments
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Synthesis of Biodegradable Polymer–Carbon Nanotube Composites
2.3 Applications of Biodegradable Polymer–Carbon Nanotube Composites in Water and Wastewater Treatments
2.4 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 3: Eco-Friendly Nanocomposites of Chitosan with Natural Extracts, Antimicrobial Agents, and Nanometals
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Properties and Formation of Chitosan Oligosaccharides
3.3 Nanomaterials from Renewable Materials
3.4 Synthesis Methods for Chitosan-Based Nanocomposites
3.5 Analytical Techniques for the Identification of the Composite Materials
3.6 Advanced Applications of Bionanomaterials Based on Chitosan
3.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 4: Controllable Generation of Renewable Nanofibrils from Green Materials and Their Application in Nanocomposites
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Generation of CNF from Jute Fibers
4.3 Controllable Generation of CNF from Jute Fibers
4.4 CNF Generation from Other Nonwood Fibers
4.5 Applications in Nanocomposites
4.6 Conclusions and Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 5: Nanocellulose and Nanocellulose Composites: Synthesis, Characterization, and Potential Applications
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Nanocellulose
5.3 Nanocellulose Composites
5.4 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 6: Poly(Lactic Acid) Biopolymer Composites and Nanocomposites for Biomedicals and Biopackaging Applications
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Preparations of PLA
6.3 Biocomposite
6.4 PLA Biocomposites
6.5 Nanocomposites
6.6 PLA Nanocomposites
6.7 Biomaterials
6.8 PLA Biomaterials
6.9 Processing Advantages of PLA Biomaterials
6.10 PLA as Packaging Materials
6.11 Biomedical Application of PLA
6.12 Medical Implants
6.13 Some Clinical Applications of PLA Devices
6.14 PLA Packaging Applications
6.15 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Impact of Nanotechnology on Water Treatment: Carbon Nanotube and Graphene
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Threats to Water Treatment
7.3 Nanotechnology in Water Treatment
7.4 Polymer Nanocomposites
7.5 Global Impact of Nanotechnology and Human Health
7.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 8: Nanomaterials in Energy Generation
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Applications of Nanotechnology in Medicine and Biology
8.3 In Solar Cells
8.4 Visible-Light Active Photocatalyst
8.5 Energy Storage
8.6 Biomechanical Energy Harvest and Storage Using Nanogenerator
8.7 Nanotechnology on Biogas Production
8.8 Evaluation of Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities Using Nanoparticles
8.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Sustainable Green Nanocomposites from Bacterial Bioplastics for Food-Packaging Applications
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Synthesis, Structure, Properties, and Applications
9.3 ZnO Nanofillers: Structure, Properties, Synthesis, and Applications
9.4 Materials and Nanocomposite Processing
9.5 Characterization of PHA-Based Nanocomposites
9.6 Conclusions and Outlook
References
Chapter 10: PLA Nanocomposites: A Promising Material for Future from Renewable Resources
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Biopolymers
10.3 PLA Production
10.4 PLA-Based Nanocomposites
10.5 PLA Nanocomposites
10.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11: Biocomposites from Renewable Resources: Preparation and Applications of Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Structure, Properties, and Importance of Chitosan and its Nanocomposites
11.3 Structure, Properties, and Importance of Montmorillonite
11.4 Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites
11.5 Preparation Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites
11.6 Applications of Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites
11.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 12: Nanomaterials: An Advanced and Versatile Nanoadditive for Kraft and Paper Industries
12.1 An Overview: Paper Industries
12.2 Nanobleaching Agents: Paper Industries
12.3 Nanosizing Agents: Paper Industries
12.4 Nano Wet/Dry Strength Agents: Paper Industries
12.5 Nanopigment: Paper Industries
12.6 Nanoretention Agents: Paper Industries
12.7 Nanomineral Filler: Paper Industries
12.8 Nano Superconductor Agents: Paper Industries
12.9 Nanodispersion Agents: Paper Industries
12.10 Certain Challenges Associated with Nanoadditives
12.11 Conclusion and Future Prospective
Acknowledgments
Conflict of Interests
References
Chapter 13: Composites and Nanocomposites Based on Polylactic Acid
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Obtaining Composites and Nanocomposite Based on PLA
13.3 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 14: Cellulose-Containing Scaffolds Fabricated by Electrospinning: Applications in Tissue Engineering and Drug Delivery
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Cellulose: Structure and Major Sources
14.3 Cellulose Nanofibers Fabricated by Electrospinning
14.4 Cellulose-Containing Nanocomposite Fabricated by Electrospinning
14.5 Applications of Cellulose-Containing Electrospun Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering
14.6 Cellulose/Polymer Electrospun Scaffolds for Drug Delivery
14.7 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 15: Biopolymer-Based Nanocomposites for Environmental Applications
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Biopolymers: Chemistry and Properties
15.3 Preparation Techniques of Polymer Nanocomposites
15.4 Characterization of Polymer Nanocomposites
15.5 Environmental Application of Biopolymers-Based Nanocomposites
15.6 Conclusion and Future Aspects
References
Chapter 16: Calcium Phosphate Nanocomposites for Biomedical and Dental Applications: Recent Developments
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Hydroxyapatite
16.3 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Coatings
16.4 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering
16.5 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Drug Delivery
16.6 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 17: Chitosan–Metal Nanocomposites: Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Chitosan: A Promising Biopolymer
17.3 Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials
17.4 Chitosan–Metal Nanocomposites
17.5 Other Natural Biopolymer in Comparison with Chitosan
17.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: Multicarboxyl-Functionalized Nanocellulose/Nanobentonite Composite for the Effective Removal and Recovery of Uranium (VI), Thorium (IV), and Cobalt (II) from Nuclear Industry Effluents and Sea Water
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Materials and Methods
18.3 Results and Discussion
18.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 19: Biomimetic Gelatin Nanocomposite as a Scaffold for Bone Tissue Repair
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Bone
19.3 Conventional Bone Implant Materials and Their Shortcoming
19.4 Major Challenges
19.5 Gelatin as a Source of Biomimetic Material
19.6 Scaffold Fabrication Techniques
19.7 Types of Bone Scaffolds by Gelatin
19.8 Currently Employed Gelatin–Ceramic Nanocomposites
19.9 Future Aspects of Gelatin-Based Nanocomposites
19.10 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 20: Natural Starches-Blended Ionotropically Gelled Microparticles/Beads for Sustained Drug Release
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Natural Starches and Their Use in Drug Delivery
20.3 Ionotropic Gelation of Polysaccharides
20.4 Jackfruit Seed Starch-Blended Ionotropically Gelled Alginate Beads for Sustained Drug Release
20.5 Jackfruit Seed Starch-Blended Ionotropically Gelled Pectinate Beads for Sustained Drug Release
20.6 Jackfruit Seed Starch-Blended Ionotropically Gelled Gellan Gum Beads for Sustained Drug Release
20.7 Potato Starch-Blended Ionotropically Gelled Alginate Beads/Microparticles for Sustained Drug Release
20.8 Assam Bora Rice Starch-Blended Ionotropically Gelled Alginate Beads for Sustained Drug Release
20.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 21: Ferrogels: Smart Materials for Biomedical and Remediation Applications
21.1 Ferrogel: General Ideas
21.2 Main Properties and Characterization of Magnetic Gels
21.3 Biomedical Applications
21.4 Environmental Remediation
21.5 Conclusions and Remarks
References
Index
End User License Agreement
Guide
Cover
Copyright
Contents
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1
TG curves of COLL, HA, and HA/COLL. (Reproduced with permission from L.C. Mendes, G.L. Ribeiro, and R.C. Marques,
Materials Sciences and Applications,
Materials Sciences & Applications, 2012, 3, 8. ©2012, Scientific Research.)
Figure 1.2
DTG curves of COLL, HA, and HA/COLL. (Reproduced with permission from L.C. Mendes, G.L. Ribeiro, and R.C. Marques,
Materials Sciences and Applications,
Materials Sciences & Applications, 2012, 3, 8. ©2012, Scientific Research.)
Figure 1.3
SEM photomicrographs of HA (a), COLL (b), and HA/COLL (c). (Reproduced with permission from L.C. Mendes, G.L. Ribeiro, and R.C. Marques,
Materials Sciences and Applications,
Materials Sciences & Applications, 2012, 3, 8. ©2012, Scientific Research.)
Figure 1.4
Schematic representation of the feasible repeat unit of the HA: Ca/P = 1.89 and 2.38, without and with COLL, respectively. (Reproduced with permission from L.C. Mendes, G.L. Ribeiro, and R.C. Marques,
Materials Sciences and Applications,
Materials Sciences & Applications, 2012, 3, 8. ©2012, Scientific Research.)
Figure 1.5
Schematic representation of the reaction between rPC-free radical species with hydroxyl group upon ZnO surface during UV exposure. (Carvalho, 2015)
Figure 1.6
OM images of PET/PC (80/20 wt/wt%) (unexposed): (a) 25 °C and (b) 280 °C. (Reproduced with permission from H. M. Pires, L.C. Mendes, S. P. Cestari, and V.J.R.R. Pita,
Materials Research,
2015, 18, 4. ©2015, Materials Research Ibero-American Journal of Materials.)
Figure 1.7
OM images of PET/PC (80/20 wt/wt%) (exposed 2000 h): (a) 25 °C and (b) 280 °C. (Reproduced with permission from H. M. Pires, L.C. Mendes, S. P. Cestari, and V.J.R.R. Pita,
Materials Research,
2015, 18, 4. ©2015, Materials Research Ibero-American Journal of Materials.)
Figure 1.8
CI as a function of exposure time for (a) natural and (b) accelerated photoaging. (Reproduced with permission from H. M. Pires, L.C. Mendes, S. P. Cestari, and V.J.R.R. Pita,
Materials Research,
2015, 18, 4. ©2015, Materials Research Ibero-American Journal of Materials.)
Figure 1.9
CI: P0 sample (unfilled and unexposed), AO/D0 samples (unfilled and UV exposed, 45/166 h), A1/D1 samples (filled with 1% of nZnO and UV exposed, 45/166 h), and A3/D3 samples (filled with 3% of nZnO and UV exposed, 45/166 h). (Reproduced with permission from H. M. Pires, L.C. Mendes, S. P. Cestari, D. C. Rodrigues, G. C. Mattos, and R. P. Cucinelli Neto,
Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology,
2015, in press. ©2015, American Scientific Publishers.)
Figure 1.10
½MSE-FID: D0 sample (unfilled and UV exposed at 166 h); nanocomposite with 1% of nZnO – D1 sample (UV exposed at166 h); nanocomposite with 3% of ZnO – D3 sample (UV exposed at 166 h). (Reproduced with permission from H. M. Pires, L.C. Mendes, S. P. Cestari, D. C. Rodrigues, G. C. Mattos, and R. P. Cucinelli Neto,
Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology,
2015, in press. ©2015, American Scientific Publishers.)
Figure 1.11
FT-IR spectra of phosphate composites. (Reproduced with permission from L.C. Mendes. D. F. Silva, L. J. F. Araujo, and A. S. Lino,
Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry,
2014, 118, 3, 1461. ©2014, Springer Science+Business Media.)
Figure 1.12
1
H LFNMR domain curves of LLDPE, LLDPE/ZrP and LLDPE/ZrPOct. (Reproduced with permission from L.C. Mendes, D. F. Silva, and A. S. Lino,
Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology,
2012, 12, 12, 8867. ©2012, American Scientific Publishers.)
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1
Chemical structure of chitin and chitosan (Nair & Laurencin, 2007).
Figure 2.2
Synthetic scheme for carbon nanotubes–chitosan composite (Carson
et al.,
2009).
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1
Structure of the polymer chains of cellulose (
top
), chitin (
center
), and chitosan (
bottom
).
Figure 3.2
Preparation of chitosan oligomers from the chitosan polymeric chain by different degradation methods.
Figure 3.3
Composite formation from the D-glucosamine structure by addition of a functional group.
Figure 3.4
Synthesis of
N
-vanillyl chitosan, as an intermediate step toward the obtaining of
N
-alkyl chitosan films.
Figure 3.5
Synthetic methods for the chemical modification of chitosan.
Figure 3.6
Chitosan applications in different fields.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1
Optical images of the (a) pristine jute fibers, (b) jute fibers pretreated by NaOH solution, and (c) jute fibers pretreated by NaOH solution and DMSO solvent successively.
Figure 4.2
SAXS patterns of the (a) pristine jute fibers, (b) jute fibers pretreated by NaOH solution, (c) jute fibers pretreated by NaOH solution and DMSO solvent successively, and (d) the corresponding I(q) * q
4
~q
2
curves.
Figure 4.3
2D WAXS patterns of the (a) pristine jute fibers, (b) jute fibers pretreated by NaOH solution, (c) jute fibers pretreated by NaOH solution and DMSO solvent successively, 1D I~2-theta integrated curves of the (d) equatorial direction, and (e) meridional direction from the corresponding WAXS patterns.
Figure 4.4
TEM images of CNF generated from the jute fibers treated by the (a), (b) NaOH solution only; (c), (d) NaOH solution and DMSO solvent successively. [The inset of (a) shows a photo of jute CNF aqueous solution with a concentration of 0.09 wt%. (b) and (d) are the high magnifications of (a) and (c), respectively.]
Figure 4.5
(a) A photo of the cellulose aerogel comprising jute CNF. (b) A 3D microtomography image of the jute nanofibrils aerogel. (c and d) FE-SEM images of the jute nanofibrils aerogel with different magnifications.
Figure 4.6
Scheme of the possible formation mechanism of jute nanofibrils aerogel by the lyophilization: (a) homogeneous aqueous solution, (b) jute nanofibrils in freezing ice, (c) jute nanofibrils aerogel, and (d) hierarchical structures.
Figure 4.7
FE-SEM images of the jute nanofibrils aerogel formed from the suspensions with various concentrations of (a) 0.03 wt%, (b) 0.09 wt%, (c) 0.18 wt%, and (d) 0.27 wt%.
Figure 4.8
1D integrated WAXS curve and 2D WAXS pattern of jute nanofibrils aerogel.
Figure 4.9
1D SR-WAXS integral curves of grinded jute fibers alkalized by NaOH solutions with different concentrations from 0 to 30 wt% at 85°C for 4 h.
Figure 4.10
Crystallinity index and cellulose II content of the jute fibers alkalized by NaOH solutions with various concentrations at 85°C and 70°C, respectively, for 4 h.
Figure 4.11
Crystallinity index of the jute fibers alkalized by different NaOH solutions at various temperatures for 4 h.
Figure 4.12
Cellulose II content of the jute fibers alkalized by different NaOH solutions at various temperatures for 4 h.
Figure 4.13
Crystallinity index of the jute fibers alkalized by different NaOH solutions at 70 °C as a function of the alkalization time.
Figure 4.14
Cellulose II content of the jute fibers alkalized by different NaOH solutions at 70°C as a function of the alkalization time.
Figure 4.15
TEM images of the jute CNF: (a) CNF-0, (b) CNF-3, (c) CNF-8, (d) CNF-15, and (e) CNF-30.
Figure 4.16
FTIR spectra of the (a) alkalized jute fibers (JF-0 to JF-30) and (b) jute CNF (CNF-0 to CNF-30).
Figure 4.17
Band resolution of the FTIR spectra (3700–3000 cm
–1
) of (a) JF-0, (b) JF-30, (c) CNF-0, and (d) CNF-30.
Figure 4.18
DSC thermograms of (a) the alkalized jute fibers (JF-0 to JF-30) and (b) the jute CNF (CNF-0 to CNF-30).
Figure 4.19
1D integrated SR-WAXS curves of the jute CNF (CNF-0 to CNF-30). (The inserted data show the calculated crystallinity index and cellulose II content of resultant CNF.)
Figure 4.20
Photos of the cotton stalk bark (a) before and (b) after degumming. FE-SEM images of the (c) DCSB-1, (d) DCSB-2, and (e) DCSB-3.
Figure 4.21
TEM images of the CNF extracted from (a) DCSB-1, (b) DCSB-2, and (c) DCSB-2.
Figure 4.22
FE-SEM images of the freeze-dried (a) CNF-1, (b) CNF-2, and (c) CNF-3 with different magnifications.
Figure 4.23
1D~2-theta integrated curves of the DCSBs fibers ((a) equatorial direction, (b) meridional direction) and (c) freeze-dried CNF.
Figure 4.24
FTIR spectra of the DCSBs fibers and freeze-dried CNF.
Figure 4.25
Band resolution of the FTIR spectra (3700–3000 cm
–1
) of (a) CNF-1, (b) CNF-2, and (c) CNF-3.
Figure 4.26
DSC thermograms of the treated DCSBs fibers and freeze-dried CNF.
Figure 4.27
(a) Zeta potential of the CNF-1, CNF-2, and CNF-3. (b) Typical stress-strain curves of the film made from CNF-1, CNF-2, CNF-3, and commercialized CNF.
Figure 4.28
Schematic of the CNF used in various nanocomposites.
Figure 4.29
TEM images of (a) CNF-3 and (b) CNF-25, the insets of (a) and (b) show the aqueous solution of CNF-3 and CNF-25 with a concentration of 0.5 wt%, respectively. (c) 1D integrated SR-WAXS curves of CNF-3 and CNF-25.
Figure 4.30
UV–vis transmittance spectra of (a) PVA/CNF-3 nanocomposite films and (b) PVA/CNF-25 nanocomposite films with various CNF contents; the insets show the photographs of these nanocomposite films.
Figure 4.31
Young’s modulus and elongation at break of PVA/CNF nanocomposite films as a function of CNF contents.
Figure 4.32
Surface coating of CNF on EFM. (a) A photo of EFM, (b) SEM image of the EFM, and (c and d) SEM images of the surface coating layer with different magnifications.
Figure 4.33
Surface coating of CNF on corrugated paper. (a) A photo of the surface-coated corrugated paper by using CNF; SEM images of (b) the pristine and (c) surface-coated corrugated paper; and (d) SEM images of the surface coating layer with different magnifications.
Figure 4.34
SEM images of the CNF assembled fibers. (a) and (b) show the surface morphology, and (c) and (d) show the cross-sections of the as-prepared fibers.
Figure 4.35
Cross-section of the as-prepared CNF nanocomposite film.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1
AFM of CNC15 (a–c), CNC45 (d–f) and CNC60 (g–i): (a, d, and g) height images; (b, e, and h) height profiles along lines in a, d, and g; and (c, f, and i) lateral dimension distribution. From
Ref.
(Jiang & Hsieh, 2013). Reprinted with permission from
Elsevier.
Figure 5.2
Schematic illustrations of (a) the hierarchical structures of plant cell walls, (b–e) the four methods of individualization of CNF, and (f–i) the corresponding as-prepared CNF. Specifically, they represent (b and f) HIUS method and HIUS-CNF, (c and g) HCl hydrolysis method and HCl-CNF, (d and h) TMP method and TMP-CNF, and (e and i) H
2
SO
4
hydrolysis method and HSO-CNF. The arrows in the illustration refer to the broken area of cellulose fibers during the nanofibrillation process, whereas the small red balls represent the negative charges introduced by the nanofibrillation process. From
Ref.
(Chen
et al.,
2014). Reprinted with permission from
Wiley.
Figure 5.3
CNC and CNF characteristics: AFM height images of (a) CNC and (b) CNF, insets are height profiles along the red lines; (c) dimensions, crystallinity, and specific surface and surface charge content. From
Ref.
(Jiang & Hsieh, 2014). Reprinted with permission from ACS.
Figure 5.4
Nanofibers assembled from freezing (-196 °C) and freeze-drying of CNC (a–c) and CNF (d–f) in 10/90
tert
-butanol/water suspensions at various concentrations: (a) 0.05%, (b) 0.1%, (c) 0.5%, (d) 0.01%, (e) 0.05%, and (f) 0.1%. From
Ref.
(Jiang & Hsieh, 2014). Reprinted with permission from ACS.
Figure 5.5
SEM images of cotton linters (a) magnifications at ×2000; BC (b) BC modified with XG-GRGDS (c) and BC after treatment in acetone (d) magnifications at ×5000. Cotton linters have a fiber size of around 6 µm, compared with nanofibrils of 70–100 nm in BC. Untreated BC has the greatest number of pores ≤1 µm. Treatment of BC with XG-GRGDS in an aqueous phase does not affect the morphology. The pore size is the same as that in untreated BC, that is, ≤1 µm. Acetone treatment of BC results in a shrunk network and pores of ≤0.5 µm. From
Ref.
(Bodin
et al.,
2007). Reprinted with permission from
ACS.
Figure 5.6
SEM observation of nanocomposite hydrogels reinforced with (a) 0.2%, (b) 0.6%, (c) 1.2%, and (d) 1.5% of CNC. The bar represents 1 µm in all images. The insert in (a) shows a TEM image of CNC with an average 25 nm diameter and 500 nm length (bar = 250 nm). From
Ref.
(Yang
et al.,
2013b). Reprinted with permission from
ACS.
Figure 5.7
Mechanical behaviors of nanocomposite hydrogels. (a) Optical images of CNC40–PDMA15 hydrogels showing high flexibility from a freestanding state to a stretched state. (b) Stress–strain curves of hybrid hydrogels with different CNC contents. (c) Stress relaxation curves for CNC gels over time. (d) Loading-unloading cycle up to a strain of 700%. From
Ref.
(Yang
et al.,
2014b). Reprinted with permission from
RSC.
Figure 5.8
The TiO
2
-coated nanocellulose aerogel (a–c) showing pore network and structures at several length scales, leading to a contact angle of ca. 140° and promoting high water absorption under UV illumination. (d) TiO
2
-coated filter paper with predominantly microscale roughness showing a water contact angle of 129°. (e) TiO
2
-coated nanocellulose film showing a water contact angle of 90° due to the smooth surface. The scale bar is 40 µm. Inset in A: a water droplet on the TiO
2
nanocellulose aerogel does not roll even if turned upside down, an indicating high adhesive pinning force with water. From
Ref.
(Kettunen
et al.,
2011). Reprinted with permission from
Wiley.
Figure 5.9
Oil spill removal from water (see the Supporting Information, Videos S2 and S3). (a) Paraffin oil (colored for clarity) floating on water, (b) the oil being absorbed into the aerogel, and (c) all of the floating oil has been absorbed. (d) The oil-filled aerogel can be washed simply by immersing it in a solvent, such as ethanol. The oil gets removed as shown by the red streaks. From
Ref.
(Korhonen
et al.,
2011). Reprinted with permission from
ACS
.
Figure 5.10
(a) Nanofibrillated cellulose (CNF) forms strong physical gels in aqueous medium due to the long and entangled hydrogen-bonded native cellulose nanofibers of diameters in the nanometer range. (b) Few-walled carbon nanotubes (FWCNTs) are modified to allow dispersion in the aqueous medium, mixed in the CNF hydrogel and homogenized by ultrasound treatment. (c) The hybrid CNF/FWCNT hydrogel is inserted in a mold and cooled by plunging into liquid propane or liquid nitrogen and freeze-dried to allow aerogels. (d) Freeze-drying from liquid nitrogen leads to slow cooling and to sheet-like morphology due to aggregation of CNF and FWCNT, whereas freeze-drying from liquid propane leads to quicker cooling and to fibrillar morphology. (e) Cryo-TEM images of CNF/FWCNT 75/25 w/w aerogel; at high magnification, the FWCNT (black arrow) can be distinguished from CNF (red arrow). It is clear that CNF and FWCNT are in close contact. (f) Conductivity of CNF/FWCNT aerogels. From
Ref.
(Wang
et al.,
2013). Reprinted with permission from
Wiley.
Figure 5.11
Photography of a circular (2 cm in diameter) PPy
–Cladophora
acid-washed cellulose composite (Sample 3.6:8) (a) and SEM images of the composite at two different degrees of magnification (b and c) From
Ref.
(Razaq
et al.,
2012). Reprinted with permission from
Wiley.
Figure 5.12
TEM images of raw IMC in water (a) before and (b) after homogenization treatment; IMC and CNF mixed solution (c) before and (d) after homogenization treatment; E100SH sample after being stored for one day (e), and for a week (f); E50SH sample after being stored for one day (g) and for a week (h); (i) crystal growth of IMC on the surface of a CNF through solvent evaporation, (j) the dispersion state of samples; diameter distribution of the CNFs (k) and CNF/IMC units (l). From
Ref.
(Gao
et al.,
2014). Reprinted with permission from
Wiley.
Figure 5.13
(a) Schematic illustrations of the fabrication processes for stretchable graphene nanopapers. (b–e) Example images of the free-standing flexible nanopaper (b and c) and stretchable nanopaper (d and e). (f) Water adsorption comparison of crumpled graphene paper, planar graphene paper and commercial graphite paper. The scale bars in (b–f) are 10 mm. From
Ref.
(Yan
et al.,
2014). Reprinted with permission from
Wiley.
Figure 5.14
SEM images of PS latex beads and SIV particles following filtration on
Cladophora
cellulose membrane: (a) 500 nm beads, (b) 100 nm beads, (c) 30 nm beads, and (d) SIV particles. From (Metreveli
et al.,
2014). Reprinted with permission from
Wiley.
Figure 5.15
SEM top-view images revealing the effect of the calcination temperature on the morphology of nanocellulose-templated
α
-Fe
2
O
3
thin films. The films were coated on silicon wafers from solutions containing nanocellulose and FeCl
3
·6H
2
O and calcined at (a) 300, (b) 400, (c) 500, and (d) 600 °C. The scale bars correspond to 100 nm. From
Ref.
(Ivanova
et al.,
2015). Reprinted with permission from
ACS
.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1
Schematic diagram of PLA cycle from its preparation, applications, and recycling to composting (Al-Mulla & Ibrahim, 2012).
Figure 6.2
Schematic diagram showing the preparations of PLA from LA.
Figure 6.3
A reconstruction of IS tendon using PLLA felt indicated as F, while SS indicates the supraspinatus tendon (Suzuki & Ikada, 2010).
Figure 6.4
Examples of different designs of stents made from PLLA (Suzuki & Ikada, 2010).
Figure 6.5
An example of PLLA mesh and bone marrow used for mandibular reconstruction (Suzuki & Ikada, 2010).
Figure 6.7
Application examples of biaxially oriented PLA film (Obuchi & Ogawa, 2010).
Figure 6.8
A band for automatic packing machine (Obuchi & Ogawa, 2010).
Figure 6.9
BioWare products (Matrus
et al.,
2010).
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1
Possible threats to current water purification technologies (Das, Ali,
et al.,
2014).
Figure 7.2
Growth of publications on water treatment using various nanomaterials from year 2005 to 2015 searched by topic ‘water treatment’ and refined by various nanomaterials like ‘Fe, ‘Cu, ‘TiO
2
’, ‘Ag’, ‘CNT’, ‘Graphene’, ‘Au’, and ‘Dendrimer’ in web of science on November 16, 2015.
Figure 7.3
Contribution of functionalized CNTs in water treatment technologies.
Figure 7.4
Schematic picture of the two types of CNT membranes (a) vertically aligned and (b) mixed matrix CNT membranes (Das, Ali,
et al.,
2014).
Figure 7.5
Showing surface functionalization of CNTs through different ways (Das, Abd Hamid,
et al.,
2014).
Figure 7.6
CWAO mechanism showing production of HO
2
·
over MWCNTs (X. Liu
et al.,
2013).
Figure 7.7
Mechanism of photodegradation over CNT (Das, Abd Hamid,
et al.,
2014).
Figure 7.8
(a) SWCNT and (b) MWCNT (Das, Abd Hamid,
et al.,
2014).
Figure 7.9
Hypothetical picture showing hierarchical nanofillers as building blocks for multifunctional nanocomposite membranes (Christopher A. Crock, 2013).
Figure 7.10
(a) Imaginary three-dimensional dendrimers, (b) PAMAM dendrimers, and (c) PPI dendrimer (Pradeep
et al.,
2009).
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1
‘Moore’s law’ plot of transistor size versus year (Courtesy Gleiter, 2009).
Figure 8.2
Transformation of zone structure of a solid under reduction of its size from macro-to nanoscale down to a single atom, showing the increase of the band gap Δ
E
g
(Courtesy Gleiter, 2009).
Figure 8.3
Luminescence spectrum of ZnO for different particles size (Courtesy Gleiter, 2009).
Figure 8.4
Working principle of a DSSC.
Figure 8.5
Chemical structures of chlorine sensitizers (Courtesy, Wang
et al.,
2010).
Figure 8.6
Z813 electrolyte and either a TiO
2
nanocrystalline-sintered paste (left) or ZnO nanowires (right). Left: stabilized PS-I physisorbed to TiO
2
on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO)-coated glass. Right: (bioengineered) PS-I self-assembled in the presence of an overabundance of PsaE-ZnO subunit on ZnO nanowires grown on ITO glass (Courtesy, Mershin
et al.,
2012).
Figure 8.7
Device structure of solar cells on CNC substrates: CNC/Ag/PEIE/PBDTTT-C:PCBM/MoO3/Ag, courtesy (Zhou
et al.,
2013).
Figure 8.8
Composition of nanogenerator (courtesy, Saqib
et al.,
2015).
Figure 8.9
Piezoelectric nanogenerator (courtesy, Saqib
et al.,
2015).
Figure 8.10
Schematic of AD process (courtesy, Ganzoury
et al.,
2015).
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1
Synthetic route of PHB and PHBV in
A. eutrophus.
Adapted from Ojumu
et al.,
2004, with permission from Academic Journals, Inc.
Figure 9.2
Top: General structure of PAHs; bottom: structure of poly(hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV). Adapted from Ojumu
et al.,
2004, with permission from Academic Journals, Inc.
Figure 9.3
Hexagonal wurtzite structure (left), rock salt (middle) and zinc blende (right) phases of ZnO. The big white spheres correspond to O atoms and the small black ones to Zn atoms.
Figure 9.4
Mechanisms of toxicity of ZnO nanoparticles against bacteria. Adapted from Hajipour
et al.,
2012, with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 9.5
SEM (a and b) and TEM (c and d) micrographs of PHB/ZnO nanocomposites with 1.0 wt% (a and c) and 10.0 wt% (b and d) nanoparticle content. Particle size and particle–particle distance distribution in nanocomposites with 1.0 wt% (e and g) and 10.0 wt% (f and h) ZnO. Adapted from Diez-Pascual & Diez-Vicente, 2014a, with permission from MDPI.
Figure 9.6
WAXS patterns of PHBV, ZnO and the indicated nanocomposites. Adapted from Diez-Pascual & Diez-Vicente, 2014b, with permission from the American Chemical Society.
Figure 9.7
ATR-FTIR spectra of ZnO, neat PHB and the nanocomposites with 1.0 and 10.0 wt% ZnO. Adapted from Diez-Pascual & Diez-Vicente, 2014a, with permission from MDPI.
Figure 9.8
DSC heating and cooling scans for PHB/ZnO nanocomposites at a rate of 10°C/min. Adapted from Diez-Pascual & Diez-Vicente, 2014a, with permission from MDPI.
Figure 9.9
TGA curves under nitrogen atmosphere for neat PHBV, ZnO, and the nanocomposites with different nanoparticle loadings. The inset shows derivative (DTG) curves. Adapted from Diez-Pascual & Diez-Vicente, 2014b, with permission from the American Chemical Society.
Figure 9.10
DMA measurements for PHBV/ZnO nanocomposites: (a) storage modulus and (b) tan δ as a function of temperature; (c) C coefficient at different temperatures. Adapted from Diez-Pascual & Diez-Vicente, 2014b, with permission from the American Chemical Society.
Figure 9.11
Tensile properties of PHB and PHB/ZnO nanocomposites with different nanoparticle loadings: (a) Young’s modulus and tensile strength and (b) strain at break and toughness. The dotted and dashed lines in Figure 9.11a correspond to the predictions according to Krenchel’s rule of mixtures and Einstein’s equation, respectively. Adapted from Diez-Pascual & Diez-Vicente, 2014a, with permission from MDPI.
Figure 9.12
Barrier properties of PHB/ZnO nanocomposites as a function of ZnO content: (a) water uptake and water vapor permeability (WVP); (b) OP. Adapted from Diez-Pascual & Diez-Vicente, 2014a, with permission from MDPI.
Figure 9.13
Overall migration data in ethanol 10% (
v
/
v
) (solid squares) and isooctane (open circles) for PHB and its bionanocomposites. Taken from Diez-Pascual & Diez-Vicente, 2014a, with permission from MDPI.
Figure 9.14
(a) Effect of PHBV/ZnO nanocomposites on the SR of
E. coli
(squares) and
S. aureus
(circles). (b) Kinetics of the antibacterial activity of PHBV/ZnO nanocomposites with 2.0 and 5.0 wt% loading (open and solid symbols, respectively) against
E. coli
(squares) and
S. aureus
(circles). Taken from Diez-Pascual & Diez-Vicente, 2014b, with permission from the American Chemical Society.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1
Synthesis of biopolymers from renewable feedstocks.
Figure 10.2
Synthesis of PLA.
Figure 10.3
Synthesis of PLA nanocomposites.
Figure 10.4
Preparation of PLA nanocomposites.
Figure 10.5
PLA separate clay layers.
Figure 10.6
Formation of CNT–PLA nanocomposite.
Figure 10.7
Structure of amylose.
Figure 10.8
Structure of amylopectin.
Figure 10.9
Structure of cellulose.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1
Concept of biocomposite materials.
Figure 11.2
Chemical structure of chitosan.
Figure 11.3
Chemical structure of chitin.
Figure 11.4
Chitosan into polycation under acidic condition.
Figure 11.5
Schematic representation of chitosan intercalated into MMT.
Figure 11.6
Structure of 2:1 phyllosilicates (Giannelis
et al.,
1999). Note: The importance of 2:1 phyllosilicates is colloidal nature and the much significant activity of colloids is their large surface area and small size. The overall colloidal surface area of clay colloids may vary internal and external surfaces of the colloids. Furthermore, the clays particles carry positive or negative charges on their internal and external surfaces. The existence of charge effect their capability to attract or repulse charge ions to or from surfaces. Hence, the 2:1 phyllosilicates colloids plays a key role in the chemical reaction.
Figure 11.7
Illustration of different morphologies of polymer/MMT nanocomposites. Reproduced with permission from (Paul & Robeson, 2008).
Figure 11.8
Schematic representation of chitosan–clay biocomposites for various applications.
Figure 11.9
Schematic illustration of heavy metal adsorption mechanism on chitosan-based nanocomposites (Mishra, 2014).
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1
The general flow system of papermaking.
Figure 12.2
SEM image of coatings containing silica pigment on the fine paper surface. Magnification of 100,000 (Atik & Ates, 2012).
Figure 12.3
SEM micrographs of the four paper samples: (a) standard tracing paper, (b) laboratory paper sample, (c) and (d) nanocellulose paper (Galán, Fernández-Caliani, Aparicio, Miras, & Márquez).
Figure 12.4
TiO
2
paper sheet in photocatalysis system.
Figure 12.5
SEM micrographs showing (a) untreated handsheet paper, (b) after seeding with ZnO nanoparticles, (c) ZnO nanorods grown on paper at a concentration of 10 mM for 10 h, (d) ZnO nanorods grown on paper at a concentration of 10 mM for 20 h, (e) ZnO nanorods grown on paper at a concentration of 20 mM for 10 h, and (f) ZnO nanorods grown on paper at a concentration of 20 mM for 20 h (Jang
et al.,
2013).
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1
Citation overview in the past years adapted from Web of Science indexed articles.
Figure 13.2
Idealized scheme of the viable routs for PLA composites and nanocomposites obtaining from biomass.
Figure 13.3
Main methods (in last 2 years) for PLA composites and nanocomposites obtaining.
Figure 13.4
PLA nanocomposites based on different loads (wt.) of MMT (sodium montmorillonite) (PLA/Am -PLA with 8%wt. starch) obtained by melt mixing (Brabender) followed by compression molding. Surface morphology by SEM and phase detection by EDS.
Figure 13.5
PLA composites and nanocomposites application by the main obtaining routs (most of the past years research).
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1
Structure of cellulose (
n
= degree of polymerization). Reprinted with permission from Klemm
et al.
(2005).
Figure 14.2
Transmission electron micrographs of (a) CNC. Reprinted with permission from Rosa
et al.
(2010) and (b) nanofibrils cellulose. Reprinted with permission from Siró and Plackett (2010). (c) SEM image of BC. Reprinted with permission from Martins
et al.
(2009).
Figure 14.3
Schematic illustration of the basic setup for single fluid electrospinning. From Lim
et al.
(2008) reprinted with permission.
Figure 14.4
Schematic representations of modified electrospinning processes. (a) Coaxial electrospinning. From Li
et al.
(2010) reprinted with permission. (b) Emulsion electrospinning. From Qi
et al.
(2006) reprinted with permission.
Figure 14.5
SEM images of CDNA nanofibers obtained from different solvent systems at different polymer concentration: (a) 10 wt.%, (b) 12.5 wt.%, (c) 15 wt.%, and (d) 17 wt.%. From Lan
et al.
(2015a) reprinted with permission.
Figure 14.6
(a) Thermogravimetric curves of the electrospun neat PLA and PLA/CNC mats.
Figure 14.7
TEM micrographs of coaxial CTA (core)-HAp (sheath) nanofibers at different magnifications. From Lan
et al.
(2015b) reprinted with permission.
Figure 14.8
Images of the antibacterial effect of ZnO-embedded CA fibrous membranes fabricated by electrospinning against gram-positive (methicillin-resistant
S. aureus
) and gram-negative (
E. coli, C. freundii,
and
K. pneumonia
) bacteria. From Anitha
et al.
(2013) reprinted with permission.
Figure 14.9
Scheme of the experimental procedure used by He
et al.
(2014) for the fabrication of all-cellulose nanocomposites based on blends of cotton cellulose and CNC. From He
et al.
(2014) reprinted with permission.
Figure 14.10
Confocal microscopy images of (a) hDFCs proliferated on highly aligned cellulose nanofibrous scaffolds and (b) randomly oriented cellulose nanofibrous scaffolds. Red for cell actin and blue for cell nuclei. From He
et al.
(2015) reprinted with permission.
Figure 14.11
Microablated electrospun CA scaffolds: (a) diameters of the pores in pattern are 300 µm. (b) Magnification on edge of 150 µm pore revealing intact fibers. Mouse osteoprogenitor cells (MC3T3-E1) cells seeded on electrospun scaffolds with their nucleus dyed with 4’,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole and F-actin stained with rhodamine phalloidin: (c) electrospun cellulose scaffold, (d) electrospun cellulose scaffold with cells lining the microablated pore, (e) mineralized electrospun scaffold, and (f) mineralized electrospun scaffold with cells lining microablated pore. From Rodríguez
et al.
(2014) reprinted with permission.
Figure 14.12
SEM micrographs of human A375 melanoma cells attached on nanofibrous scaffolds at different weight ratios of hydroxyethyl cellulose to poly(vinyl alcohol): (a and b) 50:50, (c and d) 40:60, and (e and f) 30:70. From Zulkifli
et al.
(2014) reprinted with permission.
Figure 14.13
Fluorescent microscopic images of cardiac myoblast H9C2 cells immunostained with
α
-actin and connexin-43 rabbit polyclonal antibodies after seeded on randomly oriented (a and b) and aligned (c and d) polyurethane/EC fibrous scaffolds, respectively. The scale bar is 100 mm in length. In all images red for cell actin and blue for cell nuclei. From Chen
et al.
(2015) reprinted with permission.
Figure 14.14
Schematic illustration of different electrospinning setups: (a) hybrid electrospinning. From Liu
et al.
(2012) reprinted with permission and (b) combination of electrospinning and electrospray. Adapted from Xu
et al.
(2015).
Figure 14.15
Histological images of burn skins: (a) normal skin, (b) control at day 28, and (c) skin covered with PEU/CA nanofibers at day 28. From Liu
et al.
(2012) reprinted with permission.
Figure 14.16
Chemical structure of (a) SFS and (b) HPβCD. Schematic representations of (c) HPβCD, (d) SFS/HPβCD-inclusion complex, and (e) setup used for the electrospinning of blends of HPC and SFS/HPβCD-inclusion complex. From Aytac
et al.
(2015) reprinted with permission.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1
Schematic diagram illustrating the classification of biopolymers according to their origin and structure.
Figure 15.2
Chemical structure of (a) amylose and (b) amylopectin. Modified and reprinted from Nayak (2007) with permission.
Figure 15.3
Extrusion process for starch conversion into thermoplastic materials.
Figure 15.4
(a) Chemical structure of cellulose, (b) intermolecular H-bonding within cellulose molecules, and (c) orientation of cellulose in cell walls controlled by microtubules orientation. Reprinted from Habibi
et al.
(2010a) with permission.
Figure 15.5
Chemical Structures of (a) chitin and (b) chitosan. Reprinted from Jayakumar Prabaharan, Sudheesh Kumar, Nair, and Tamura (2011) with permission.
Figure 15.6
Chemical structure of alginate. Reprinted from Pierre Lembre (2012) with permission.
Figure 15.7
Schematic diagram illustrating nanocomposite preparation through direct compounding technique.
Figure 15.8
Schematic drawing illustrating different approaches of
in situ
synthesis.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1
Classification of bioceramics according to their bioactivity. (a) Bioinert (alumina dental implant), (b) bioresorbable (tricalcium phosphate implant), (c) surface active (bioglass or A–W glass), and (d) bioactive (hydroxyapatite coating on a metallic dental implant).
Figure 16.2
Nanocrystalline carbonate apatite platelets synthesized via the sol-gel process.
Figure 16.3
Multilayer liposome with nano-HAp particles (courtesy of Dr. K. Lewis).
Figure 16.4
Calcium phosphate coated with stem cells.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1
Structure of chitin.
Figure 17.2
Structure of chitosan.
Figure 17.3
Interaction of chitosan with glutaraldehyde and ionic cross-linking.
Figure 17.4
Ionic gelation method.
Figure 17.5
Interaction of Zn with chitosan (adopted from Wang
et al.,
2014).
Figure 17.6
Particle size distribution of Zn–chitosan nanocomposite and PDI value.
Figure 17.7
TEM study of Cu–chitosan nanoparticles.
Figure 17.8
Hypothetical model of ionic cross-linking reaction of chitosan, TPP, and Cu (Saharan
et al.,
2015).
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1
Surface charge density of NC/NB and P(IA/MAA)-
g
-NC/NB as a function of pH in aqueous solution of NaCl.
Figure 18.2
FTIR spectra of cellulose (A), NC (B), and BENT (C). NB (D), NC/NB (E), P(IA/MAA)-
g
-NC/NB (F), Th(IV)-P(IA/MAA)-
g
-NC/NB (G), Co(II)-P(IA/MAA)-
g
-NC/NB, and U(VI)-P(IA/MAA)-
g
-NC/NB.
Figure 18.3
X-ray diffraction patterns of NC, NB, NC/NB, P(IA/MAA)-
g
-NC/NB, U(VI)-P(IA/MAA)-
g
-NC/NB, Th(IV)-P(IA/MAA)-
g
-NC/NB and Co(II)-P(IA/MAA)-
g
-NC/NB.
Figure 18.4
TG curves for the characterization of NC/NB, P(IA/MAA)-
g
-NC/NB.
Figure 18.5
Effect of pH on U(VI) (A), Th(IV) (B) and Co(II) (C) Adsorption.
Figure 18.6
Adsorption kinetics of U(VI) (A), Th(IV) (B) and Co(II) (C).
Figure 18.7
Comparison of the experimental and model fits of Langmuir, Freundlich and Sips isotherms of U(VI) (a), Th(IV) (b) and Co(II) (c) Adsorption adsorption onto P(IA/MAA)-
g
-NC/NB at room temperatures.
Figure 18.8
Two cycles U(VI) (A), Th(IV) (B) and Co(II) (C) Adsorption –Desorption with 0.1 M HCl as the desorbing agent
Figure 18.9
Effect of adsorbent dose on the removal of U(VI) (a), Th(IV) (b) and Co(II) (c) ions from the simulated nuclear industry waste water and sea water by P(IA/MAA)-
g
-NC/NB.
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1
Schematic representation of cellular distribution of bone.
Figure 19.2
Schematic diagram showing the competitive mechanical behavior of apatite, collagen, and compact bone.
Figure 19.3
Molecular structure of alginate (Skaugrud, Hagen, Borgersen, & Dornish, 1999).
Figure 19.4
Structure of chitosan (deacetylated chitin).
Figure 19.5
Cross-sectional SEM photos of CS–Gel/’β–TCP composite scaffolds fabricated from different concentrations of composite suspensions (wt %): (a) 2%, (b) 3%, (c) 5%, and (d) 8%. From Yin, Ye
et al.
(2003) ©2015, with permission from John Wiley and Sons.
Figure 19.6
Structure of PLLA.
Figure 19.7
Chemical structure of PVA.
Figure 19.8
Structure of PLGA polymer; where “x” component represents lactic acid and “y” component represents glycolic acid part.
Figure 19.9
Electrospinning scheme of nanofibrous PLGA/gelatin/HAp composite. From Lee, Kim
et al.
(2010) ©2015, with permission from Springer.
Figure 19.10
Chemical structure of PCL polymer.
Figure 19.11
Optical microscope photographs of electrospun gelatin fibers at different concentrations of spinning dope. From Zhang, Ouyang
et al.
(2005) ©2015, with permission from John Wiley and Sons.
Figure 19.12
Structure of HAp.
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1
SEM image of optimized metformin HCl-loaded jackfruit seed starch-blended ionotropically gelled alginate beads (Nayak
et al.,
2013b) Copyright © 2013 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 20.2
In vitro
metformin HCl release from metformin HCl-loaded jackfruit seed starch-blended ionotropically gelled alginate beads (Nayak
et al.,
2013b) Copyright © 2013 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 20.3
Swelling behavior of metformin HCl-loaded jackfruit seed starch-blended ionotropically gelled alginate beads in 0.1 N HCl, pH 1.2 and phosphate buffer, pH 7.4 (Nayak
et al.,
2013b) Copyright © 2013 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 20.4
Ex vivo
wash off of optimized metformin HCl-loaded jackfruit seed starch-blended ionotropically gelled alginate beads in 0.1 N HCl, pH 1.2 and phosphate buffer, pH 7.4 using goat intestinal mucosa (Nayak
et al.,
2013b) Copyright © 2013 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 20.5
Comparative
in vivo
blood glucose level in alloxan-induced diabetic rats after oral administration of pure metformin HCl and optimized metformin HCl-loaded jackfruit seed starch-blended ionotropically gelled alginate beads (F–O) (
*p
< 0.05) (Nayak
et al.,
2013b) Copyright © 2013 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 20.6
Comparative
in vivo
mean percentage reduction in blood glucose level in alloxan-induced diabetic rats after oral administration of pure metformin HCl and optimized metformin HCl-loaded jackfruit seed starch-blended ionotropically gelled alginate beads (F–O) (Nayak
et al.,
2013b) Copyright © 2013 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 20.7
SEM image of optimized metformin HCl-loaded jackfruit seed starch-blended ionotropically gelled pectinate beads (Nayak
et al.,
2013c) Copyright © 2013 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 20.8
In vitro
metformin HCl release from metformin HCl-loaded jackfruit seed starch-blended ionotropically gelled pectinate beads (Nayak
et al.,
2013c) Copyright © 2013 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 20.9
Swelling behavior of optimized metformin HCl-loaded jackfruit seed starch-blended ionotropically gelled pectinate beads in 0.1 N HCl, pH 1.2 and phosphate buffer, pH 7.4 (Nayak
et al.,
2013c) Copyright © 2013 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 20.10
Ex vivo
wash off of optimized metformin HCl-loaded jackfruit seed starch-blended ionotropically gelled pectinate beads in 0.1 N HCl, pH 1.2 and phosphate buffer, pH 7.4 using goat intestinal mucosa (Nayak
et al.,
2013c) Copyright © 2013 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 20.11
Comparative
in vivo
blood glucose level in alloxan-induced diabetic rats after oral administration of pure metformin HCl and optimized metformin HCl-loaded jackfruit seed starch-blended ionotropically gelled pectinate beads (F–O) (*p < 0.05) (Nayak
et al.,
2013c) Copyright © 2013 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 20.12
Comparative
in vivo
mean percentage reduction in blood glucose level in alloxan-induced diabetic rats after oral administration of pure metformin HCl and optimized metformin HCl-loaded jackfruit seed starch-blended ionotropically gelled pectinate beads (F–O) (Nayak
et al.,
2013c) Copyright © 2013 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 20.13
SEM image of the bead surface topography of optimized metformin HCl-loaded jackfruit seed starch-blended ionotropically gelled gellan gum beads at different magnifications (×1000 and ×2000) (Nayak
et al.,
2014e) Copyright © 2014 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 20.14
In vitro
metformin HCl release from metformin HCl-loaded jackfruit seed starch-blended ionotropically gelled gellan gum beads (Nayak
et al.,
2014e) Copyright © 2014 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 20.15
Swelling behavior of optimized metformin HCl-loaded jackfruit seed starch-blended ionotropically gelled gellan gum beads in 0.1 N HCl, pH 1.2 and phosphate buffer, pH 7.4 (Nayak
et al.,
2014e) Copyright © 2014 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 20.16
Ex vivo
wash off of optimized metformin HCl-loaded jackfruit seed starch-blended ionotropically gelled gellan gum beads in 0.1 N HCl, pH 1.2 and phosphate buffer, pH 7.4 using goat intestinal mucosa (Nayak
et al.,
2014e) Copyright © 2014 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 20.17
Comparative
in vivo
blood glucose level in alloxan-induced diabetic rats after oral administration of pure metformin HCl and optimized metformin HCl-loaded jackfruit seed starch-blended ionotropically gelled gellan gum beads (F–O) (*p < 0.05) (Nayak
et al.,
2014e) Copyright © 2014 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Figure 20.18
Comparative
in vivo
mean percentage reduction in blood glucose level in alloxan-induced diabetic rats after oral administration of pure metformin HCl and optimized metformin HCl-loaded jackfruit seed starch-blended ionotropically gelled gellan gum beads (F–O) (Nayak
et al.,
2014e) Copyright © 2014 with permission from Elsevier B.V.
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1
Ferrogels obtaining methods (a) by the swelling of a preformed hydrogel with a ferrofluid; (b) by co-precipitating magnetic NPs in the presence of the polymeric material, followed by cross-linking to form the ferrogel; and (c) by the incorporation of previously formed NPs by grinding and mixing them with the polymer, followed by cross-linking to form the ferrogel.
Figure 21.2
Ferrogels for drug delivery: actuation mechanisms.
Figure 21.3
Magnetic hyperthermia for cancer treatment.
Figure 21.4
Removal of metal ions from aqueous solutions employing ferrogel.