Contents
Cover
Title page
Copyright page
Dedication
Preface
Chapter 1: Design and Manufacturing of High-Performance Green Composites Based on Renewable Materials
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Bio-Based Epoxy Matrix – State-of-the-Art
1.3 Curing of Bio-Based Epoxy Resins – an Ecological Approach
1.4 Natural Fibers
1.5 Processing Routes
1.6 Applications and Requirements
1.7 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 2: Manufacturing of High Performance Biomass-Based Polyesters by Rheological Approach
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Linear Viscoelastic Properties
2.3 Enhancement of Crystallization Rate
2.4 Rheological Modification for Marked Melt Elasticity
2.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 3: Design of Fibrous Composite Materials for Saving Energy
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Microthermomechanical Fiber Composites Behavior
3.3 Industrial Applications — Case Studies
3.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 4: Design and Manufacturing of Bio-Based Sandwich Structures
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Bio-Based Core Materials
4.3 Manufacture of Sandwich Panels
4.4 Recent Studies on Bio-Based Sandwich Panels
4.5 Applications of Bio-Based Sandwich Panels
4.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5: Design and Manufacture of Biodegradable Products from Renewable Resources
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Materials and Processes for Biodegradable Composites
5.3 Performance of Biodegradable Composites Under Service Conditions
5.4 Case Studies
References
Chapter 6: Manufacturing and Characterization of Quicklime (CaO) Filled ZA-27 Metal Alloy Composites for Single-Row Deep Groove
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Experimental Details
6.3 Result and Discussions
6.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 7: Manufacturing of Composites from Chicken Feathers and Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Experimental
7.3 Results and Discussion
7.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 8: Production of Porous Carbons from Resorcinol-Formaldehyde Gels: Applications
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Synthesis of Aerogels
8.3 Polymeric Gels from Renewable Raw Materials
8.4 Carbonization of Polymeric Resins
8.5 Drying the Polymeric Gel
8.6 Gel Stabilization
8.7 Pyrolysis of R-F Resins
8.8 Applications of the Gels
8.9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 9: Composites Using Agricultural Wastes
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Natural Fibers Classification
9.3 Types of Plant Fibers
9.4 Composite Mechanical Properties
9.5 Industry Process of Some Biocomposites Using Agricultural Wastes
References
Chapter 10: Manufacturing of Rice Waste-Based Natural Fiber Polymer Composites from Thermosetting vs. Thermoplastic Matrices
10.1 General Introduction
10.2 Scope Survey of Agro-Based NFPC Composites
10.3 Optimizing the Conditions for Production of High Performance Natural Fiber Polymer Composites
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 11: Thermoplastic Polymeric Composites and Polymers: Their Potential in a Dialogue Between Art and Technology
11.1 Introduction
11.2 “Organic Beauty” in 1998
11.3 “Organic Beauty” and Other Sculptures in 2014
11.4 Laboratory Experiments
11.5 Final Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 12: Natural Fiber Reinforced PLA Composites: Effect of Shape of Fiber Elements on Properties of Composites
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Natural Reinforcers
12.3 Element Morphology
12.4 Continuous Fiber Reinforced PLA Composite
References
Chapter 13: Rigid Closed-Cell PUR Foams Containing Polyols Derived from Renewable Resources: The Effect of Polymer Composition, Foam Density, and Organoclay Filler on Their Mechanical Properties
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Experimental
13.3 Modeling the Mechanical Properties of Foams
13.4 Results and Discussion
13.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 14: Preparation and Application of the Composite from Alginate
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Composites from Alginate and Natural Polymers
14.3 Composites from Alginate and Synthetic Polymers
14.4 Composites from Alginate and Biomacromolecules
14.5 Composites from Alginate and Inorganic Components
14.6 Composites from Alginate and Carbon Materials
14.7 Composites from Alginate and Clays
References
Chapter 15: Recent Developments in Biocomposites of
Bombyx mori
Silk Fibroin
15.1 Introduction
15.2 History of
B. mori
Silk
15.3 Chemical Composition of
B. mori
Silk
15.4 Properties of
B. mori
Silk
15.5 Extraction of Silk Fibroin by Degumming Process
15.6 Regenerated Fibroin Solution
15.7 Silk Fibroin Hydrogels
15.8 Methods of SF-Based Biocomposite Production
15.9 Silk Fibroin-Based Biocomposites
15.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Design and Manufacturing of Natural Fiber/Synthetic Fiber Reinforced Polymer Hybrid Composites
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Natural Fiber/Synthetic Fiber Hybrid Composites
16.3 Applications and Future Outlook
16.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 17: Natural Fiber Composite Strengthening Solution for Structural Beam Component for Enhanced Flexural Strength, as Alternatives to CFRP and GFRP Strengthening Techniques
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Materials
17.3 Mechanical Characterization of Natural and Artificial FRP Composites
17.4 RC Beam Strengthening Rechnique Using Natural and Artificial FRP Composite Systems
17.5 Experimentation and Analysis of Results
17.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 18: High Pressure Resin Transfer Moulding of Epoxy Resins From Renewable Sources
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Experimental
18.3 Results and Discussions
18.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 19: Cork-Based Structural Composites
19.1 Introduction: Cork as a Sustainable Resource
19.2 Cork as a Structural Material
19.3 Fibers and Matrices
19.4 Cork Core Sandwich Concepts
19.5 Damage Tolerant Structures with Cork
19.6 Processing Techniques
19.7 Design Philosophy
19.8 Conclusions and Challenges
References
Chapter 20: The Use of Wheat Straw as an Agricultural Waste in Composites for Semi-Structural Applications
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Application of Wheat Straw in Composites
20.3 Future Developments
20.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 21: Design and Manufacturing of Sustainable Composites
21.1 Introduction to Ecological Composite Design
21.2 Design Principles for a Sustainable Composite
21.3 Summary of Available Composite Manufacturing Processes
21.4 Techniques for Improving the Thermo-Mechanical Properties of Composites
Acronym List
References
Index
End User License Agreement
Guide
Cover
Copyright
Contents
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1
Opposite to mainly uniform synthetic fibers, natural fibers are non-uniform and there final shape depends on treatment methods they have been applied to; depicted here are hemp fibers.
Figure 1.2
Epoxidation scheme of plant oils via
in situ
performic acid process.
Figure 1.3
Schematic pathway from raw material to epoxy resin.
Figure 1.4
Schematic anhydride curing mechanism. Exemplary catalyst: alcohol.
Figure 1.5
Acrylation of epoxidized plant oil.
Figure 1.6
DSC spectrum; PAG-initiated thermal curing of epoxidized hemp seed oil.
Figure 1.7
Raman spectrum; black/full line: uncured epoxidized hemp oil mixed with PAG, grey/dashed line: UV induced thermally cured epoxy resin. Peaks corresponding to the epoxy monomer decrease upon curing.
Figure 1.8
Fiber bundles of hemp (a) and kenaf (b) fibers observed using SEM.
Figure 1.9
Fiber length dependent tensile strength of hemp and kenaf fibers (according to Medina 2007).
Figure 1.10
Processing routes for thermoplastic based composites (full lines: material use/dashed lines: possible process combinations).
Figure 1.11
Processing routes for thermoset based composites.
Figure 1.12
Flax random mat reinforced furan resin. In the marked area pronounced bubbles are visible which are a result of the condensation reaction of the furan resin system.
Figure 1.13
Effect of vacuum during form-pressing (according to Medina, 2009).
Figure 1.14
Concept of the project “Green Composites for Green Technologies”.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1
Master curves of frequency dependence of oscillatory shear moduli such as storage modulus
G′
and loss modulus
G″
at 180 °C for (a) PLA and (b) PBS. (Yokohara & Yamaguchi, 2008)
Figure 2.2
Size exclusion chromatography curves of PLA, PLA/PEG-OH (90/10) and PLA/PEG-BA (90/10) as polystyrene standard. The samples were annealed at 200 °C for 3 min. (Huang
et al.,
2014)
Figure 2.3
Residence time dependence of oscillatory shear modulus for PHB at 180 °C at (a) 0.1 Hz, (b) 1 Hz, and (c) 10 Hz (Yamaguchi & Arakawa, 2006)
Figure 2.4
Frequency dependence of oscillatory shear modulus at 180 °C for the samples with various residence times in the cone-and-plate rheometer; (a) 0 min, (b) 5 min, and (c) 10 min. (Yamaguchi & Arakawa, 2006)
Figure 2.5
Master curves of oscillatory shear modulus at 180 °C for the samples with various residence times in the rheometer; The symbols are the same as in Figure 2.
a
D
is the shift factor expressing the relaxation time change by the degradation. (Yamaguchi & Arakawa, 2006)
Figure 2.6
Inverse of
M
n
as a function of the residence time in the cone-and-plate rheometer at 180 °C. (Yamaguchi & Arakawa, 2006)
Figure 2.7
Molecular weight distributions such as
M
z
/M
w
and
M
w
/M
n
,
of the samples with various residence times in the cone-and-plate rheometer at 180 °C (Yamaguchi & Arakawa, 2006).
Figure 2.8
Complex shear viscosity as a function of angular frequency at 180 °C for PHB with various residence times in the rheometer. (circles) 0 min, (triangles) 5 min, and (diamonds) 10 min. The lines represent the calculated values. (Yamaguchi & Arakawa, 2006)
Figure 2.9
Temperature dependence of tensile storage modulus
E
′ and loss modulus
E
″ for PLA and PLA/DBP (80/20) at 10 Hz. (Filled symbols) PLA and (open symbols) PLA/DBP; (open circles) immediately after compression-molding and (open diamonds) 1 month after compression-molding.
Figure 2.10
Frequency dependence of the oscillatory shear modulus at 180 °C for (closed symbols) PLA and (open symbols) PLA containing 20 wt.% of the plasticizer.
Figure 2.11
Spherulite texture under crossed polars at isothermal crystallization at 120 °C for (left) PLA and (right) PLA containing 20 wt.% of the plasticizer.
Figure 2.12
Growth curves of radius of spherulites at 120 °C for (closed circles) PLA and (open circles) PLA containing 20 wt.% of the plasticizer. (Okamoto
et al.,
2009)
Figure 2.13
Linear growth rate of spherulites at various crystallization temperatures for (closed circles) PLA and (open circles) PLA containing 20 wt.% of the plasticizer. (Huang
et al.,
2014)
Figure 2.14
Temperature dependence of dynamic tensile moduli such as storage modulus
E′
and loss modulus
E″
at 10 Hz for (closed circles) PLA and (open circles) PLA containing 20 wt.% of the plasticizer. The samples were cooled at 80 °C for 5 min. (Huang
et al.,
2014)
Figure 2.15
Toughness at tensile testing at various ambient temperatures for amorphous PLA. (a) the samples were cooled at 40 °C for 10 min and (b) the samples were cooled at 80 °C for 10 min. (Huang
et al.,
2015)
Figure 2.16
DSC cooling curves for PLA and PLA containing 5,000 ppm of
N,N′,N″
-tricyclohexyl-1,3,5-benzenetricarboxamide with optical polarized photographs at 190 °C. After melting the sample at 250 °C, the sample was (+) directly quenched at 0 °C and (x) quenched at 0 °C after annealing at 190 °C for 3 min to accelerate the crystallization of the nucleating agent. (Fujii
et al.,
2009)
Figure 2.17
Shear stress σ and primary normal stress difference
N
1
as a function of shear rate at 180 °C for (circles) pure PLA, (diamonds) 1 wt.% of PBT fibers, and (triangles) 5 wt.% of PBT fibers. (Yokohara
et al.,
2011)
Figure 2.18
Frequency dependence of oscillatory shear modulus at 180 °C for (circles) pure PLA, (diamonds) 1 wt.% of PTFE fibers, and (triangles) 5 wt.% of PTFE fibers. In the figure, SEM image of PBT fibers is shown. (Yamaguchi
et al.,
2013)
Figure 2.19
Shear stress σ and primary normal stress difference
N
1
as a function of shear rate at 180 °C for (circles) pure PLA, (diamonds) 1 wt.% of PBT fibers, and (triangles) 5 wt.% of PBT fibers. (Yokohara
et al.,
2011)
Figure 2.20
Growth curves of uniaxial elongational viscosity at various strain rates at 180 °C for (a) pure PLA, (b) PLA with 1 wt.% of PBT fibers, and (c) PLA with 1 wt.% of PMP fibers. (Yokohara
et al.,
2011)
Figure 2.21
Growth curves of uniaxial elongational viscosity at various strain rates at 190 °C for (open circles) pure PP, (closed circles) PP/gEHDM (99.7/0.3), (open diamonds) PP/gEHDM (99/1), and (closed diamonds) PP/gEHDM (97/3). (Yamaguchi & Miyata, 2000)
Figure 2.22
Flow curves at 160 °C for P(HB-HV) and P(HB-HV) with 2 wt.% of gPECH. (Arakawa
et al.,
2007)
Figure 2.23
Schematic illustration of drawdown force measurements
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1
Discreditation in computational methods.
Figure 3.2
Source functions and collocation points distribution.
Figure 3.3
Non-homogeneous and homogeneous part of solution for thermal analysis.
Figure 3.4
Distribution of 1D elements (♦), integration sub-elements (■), Gauss integration points (
) and collocation points (●) – 2D view.
Figure 3.5
Fibers patches – schematically.
Figure 3.6
Force in single fiber.
Figure 3.7
Shear stress on the fiber surface.
Figure 3.8
Heat source intensity (left) and heat flow in fiber axis in direction of fiber axis (
R
1/
L
100).
Figure 3.9
Heat flow in direction perpendicular to fiber axis (
R
1/
L
1000).
Figure 3.10
Heat flow through the fiber surface for various radii
R
(
L
= 100).
Figure 3.11
Force along fiber with/without overlapping.
Figure 3.12
Displacement
z
for 3 fibers (
R
1/
L
100).
Figure 3.13
Displacement
z
for 3 fibers (
R
1/
L
1000).
Figure 3.14
Heat flow in central fiber in perpendicular direction.
Figure 3.15
Heat flow in axis direction, fiber
R
1/
L
1000.
Figure 3.16
Heat flow in axis direction, fiber
R
1/
L
100.
Figure 3.17
Heat flow in axis direction (left) and perpendicularly to fiber axis (right), fiber
R
1/
L
100.
Figure 3.18
Heat flow perpendicularly to fiber axis for two fibers.
Figure 3.19
Effective stress distribution.
Figure 3.20
Natural frequency and damping time.
Figure 3.21
Natural frequency, narrow frequency zone (left), wide frequency zone (right).
Figure 3.22
Schema of printing section.
Figure 3.23
Time record (1s) of acceleration enveloping.
Figure 3.24
Vibration source and location of edges at printing plates.
Figure 3.25
Multilayered plate cylinder
Figure 3.26
Saved energy – printing machine.
Figure 3.27
Composite components of Viper SD-4.
Figure 3.28
Ply structure of wingtip and manufacturing.
Figure 3.29
Scheme of deformation zone transformation in turning with a coated (broken line) and uncoated tools (Vereschaka, A. S., 1993).
Figure 3.30
Experimental diagram of
Rz
in dependence on machining time for turning by uncoated and coated tools, C45; P20;
v
c
= 167 m.min
–1
;
f
=0.1 mm;
a
p
= 1 mm (Vasilko, K. & Murčinková, Z., 2015).
Figure 3.31
Drill macrogeometry.
Figure 3.32
Drill microgeometry.
Figure 3.33
Saved energy – drilling.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1
Different types of cores.
Figure 4.2
Picture of PLA core.
Figure 4.3
Photograph of core structures of (a) the square hexagonal and (b) the triangular honeycomb.
Figure 4.4
Slotting procedure for the (a) square hexagonal and (b) triangular honeycomb core structures.
Figure 4.5
Flax-furan sandwich panel.
Figure 4.6
Photographic images of fire-damaged balsa-flax/epoxy sandwich composites; (a) with (BFE-APP) and (b) without (BFE) fire protection, respectively.
Figure 4.7
(a) View of glass/polyester sandwich showing impregnation of Balsa by PLLA. (b) Zoom interface region.
Figure 4.8
Critical failure of the sandwich sample by shear cavitation in the cork core.
Figure 4.9
Photographs showing typical failure modes of the oil palm wood core sandwich beam overlaid with rubberwood veneer: (a) face fracture, (b) core shear in the PR beam and (c) core shear in the PP beam.
Figure 4.10
The maximum average load and deflection of SIPs against type of intermediate layer used for full-scale model.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1
Geomentry of Solid 185 elements for CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites.
Figure 6.2
Meshed model of bearing for CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites.
Figure 6.3
Geometric modeling of bearing for CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites.
Figure 6.4
Three-dimension sub model of single row deep groove ball bearing for CaO particulates filledZA-27 alloy composites.
Figure 6.5
Contact and target elements for CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites.
Figure 6.6
Contact models of ball and races for CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites.
Figure 6.7
Geometry of ball bearing for CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites.
Figure 6.8
Geometrical modeling for CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites.
Figure 6.9
Contact models of indenter and plate for CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites.
Figure 6.10
Meshed model of indenter for CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites.
Figure 6.11
Boundary conditions for CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites.
Figure 6.12
Hardness for CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites.
Figure 6.13
Compressive strength for CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites.
Figure 6.14
Flexural strength for CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites.
Figure 6.15
Impact strength for CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites.
Figure 6.16
Mode I stress intensity factor for CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites.
Figure 6.17
SEM micographs of fracture surfaces for CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites after fracture test composites. (a) SEm fractographs for 0 wt.-% of CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites after fracture test (b) SEM fractographs for 2.5 wt.-% of caO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites after fracture test (c) Sem fractographs for 5 wt.-% of CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites after fracture test (d) SEM fractographs for 7.5 wt.-% of CaO particulates filled Za-27 alloy composites after fracture test.
Figure 6.18
Simulated results of penetration for CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites.
Figure 6.19
Simulated results of displacement and contact stress analysis of CaO particulates filled ZA-27 alloy composites at 500N.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1
Constituents of a bird feather.
Figure 7.2
TGA thermogram of PVC and PVC-CFQ composites without coupling agent.
Figure 7.3
Storage modulus curves obtained by DMA for PVC and PVC-CFQ composites without coupling agent.
Figure 7.4
Storage modulus curves obtained by DMA for PVC and PVC-CFQ composites with coupling agent.
Figure 7.5
Tan δ curves from DMA for PVC and PVC-CFQ composites without coupling agent.
Figure 7.6
Tan δ curves from DMA for PVC and PVC-CFQ composites with coupling agent.
Figure 7.7
SEM micrographs for PVC (a), PVC-CFQ 2% (b), PVC-CFQ 4% (c), PVC-CFQ 6% (d), PVC-CFQ 8% (e) and PVC-CFQ 10% (f), without coupling agent.
Figure 7.8
SEM micrographs for PVC (a), PVC-CFQ 2% (b), PVC-CFQ 4% (c), PVC-CFQ 6% (d), PVC-CFQ 8% (e) and PVC-CFQ 10% (f), with coupling agent.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1
Variety of structures generated by sol-gel synthesis.
Figure 8.2
Carbonaceous materials formed by carbonization of polymer gels.
Figure 8.3
Schematic procedure to generate porous carbon.
Figure 8.4
Polymerization mechanism of resorcinol and formaldehyde.
Figure 8.5
Formation of aggregates from primary particles in sol-gel polymerization of resorcinol and formaldehyde.
Figure 8.6
Tannin composition, chemical structures.
Figure 8.7
Chemical structure of estimated condensed tannin molecule.
Figure 8.8
Forces involved in the drying procedure of porous resins.
Figure 8.9
(a) Formation of the polymer on the surface of the micelles, proposed by Bell
et al.
(b) scheme of synthesis to obtain porous carbons proposed by Lee
et al.
Figure 8.10
Stabilization of R-F resin using a cationic surfactant.
Figure 8.11
Kinetic analysis of Fischer esterification using sulfonated R-F and carbon as catalyst.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1
Categories of natural fiber (Morsy 2011 & Ni, 1995).
Figure 9.2
Structure of lignocellulose and wood plant (Morsy 2011 and Rubin, 2008).
Figure 9.3
Schematic illustration of the cell wall of lignocellulose cells (Ni, 1995).
Figure 9.4
Schematic illustration of the layers of lignocellulose fibers (Ni, 1995).
Figure 9.5
The chemical structure of glucose showing the carbon number and two glucose.
Figure 9.6
Example of two hemicellulose sugar monomers (Sjostrom, 1993).
Figure 9.7
Lignin structure.
Figure 9.8
Typical main parts of slender-stemmed cereal straw (Staniforth, 1979).
Figure 9.9
Transverse sections of the internodes of cereal straws (Staniforth, 1979).
Figure 9.10
Schematic of crack propagation inside the cement matrix with fibers (Morsy, 2011 & Ni, 1995).
Figure 9.11
Composites tensile strength as a function of fiber volume fraction (Chou, 1993; Mallick, 1993).
Figure 9.12
Composite stress strain curve (Chou, 1993; Mallick, 1993).
Figure 9.13
Tensile and shear stress variation along with fiber length embedded in continuous matrix and subjected to tensile force in fibrr direction (Rowell
et al.,
2000).
Figure 9.14
Effect of fiber length on fiber tensile strength (Leao
et al.,
1997).
Figure 9.15
Technical standard of mud block building in ancient Egypt 1,500 BC (Fathy 1973).
Figure 9.16
Natural reinforcement fibers; (a) wheat straw, (b) barley straw, (c) hanf fibers and (d) flax fibers (Ashour
et al.,
2015).
Figure 9.17
The grain size distribution of the tested soil (Ashour
et al.,
2015).
Figure 9.18
Electrical mixer for different materials; (a) dry mixture, (b) moist mixture (Ashour
et al.,
2015).
Figure 9.19
Earth bricks preparation under compression; (a) press machine, (b) sample preparation (Ashour
et al.,
2015).
Figure 9.20
Microscope photos forbricks reinforced with different fibers: (a) without fibers, (b) 1% wheat straw, (c) 1% barley straw, (d) 3% wheat straw and (e) 3% barley straw. Arrow refer to the distribution of straw particles inside the bricks (magnification power x12) (Ashour
et al.,
2015).
Figure 9.21
Microscope photos forbricks reinforced with different fibers: (a) hanf, (b) flax, (magnification power x12) (Zak
et al.,
2015).
Figure 9.22
bricks after preparation with different reinforcement, (a) bricks without fibers, (b) barley straw, (c) wheat straw, (d) hanf fibers (Ashour
et al.,
2015).
Figure 9.23
The influence of fibers content on bricks density (Ashour
et al.,
2015).
Figure 9.24
Shrinkage and crack formation for pure earth bricks.
Figure 9.25
The influence of different percentages of fibers content on the thermal conductivity of bricks (Ashour
et al.,
2015).
Figure 9.26
Force-path diagrams of N, F1, F3, H1, H3 (Zak
et al.,
2015).
Figure 9.27
The influence of reinforcement fibers, (a) 10 °C, (b) 20 °C, (c) 30 °C and (d) 40 °C (Ashour
et al.,
2015).
Figure 9.28
Earth plaster reinforced with straw (Ashour and Wu 2012).
Figure 9.29
Earth plaster of straw bale building (Ashour & Wu 2012).
Figure 9.30
Earth plasters for straw bale buildings preparation (Ashour, 2010).
Figure 9.31
Thermal conductivity for earth plaster reinforced with barley straw (Ashour
et al.,
2010).
Figure 9.32
EMC of recipe A for different plasters, (a) 10 °C, (b) 20 °C, (c) 30 °C and (d) 40 °C (Ashour
et al.,
2010).
Figure 9.33
Eroded blocks of plasters blocks reinforced with different materials, (a) Pure earth, (b) wood shavings, (c) wheat straw and (d) barley straw (Ashour & Wu 2010).
Figure 9.34
Erosion rate of plaster reinforced by wheat straw fiber (Ashour & Wu 2010).
Figure 9.35
Compressive strength of earth plaster reinforced with different natural fibers (Ashour
et al.,
2010).
Figure 9.36
Shrinkage ratio of plaster reinforced with straw (Ashour & Wu, 2010).
Figure 9.37
Earth plaster for straw bale buildings; (a) without plastering, (b) after plastering. (Ashour,
et al.,
2010; Spreitzer, 2010).
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 (a)
Effect of polyester replacement by rice by-products on strength (MOR) and density of NFPC produced composite
(b)
Effect of polyester replacement by rice by-products on water uptake of NFPC produced composite
Figure 10.2
(a) Effect of catalyzed amount on strength (MOR) and density of NFPC made from replacing 50% of polyester by rice by-products. (b) Effect of catalyzed amount on water up-take of NFPC made from replacing 50% of polyester by rice by-products.
Figure 10.3
(a) Effect of initiator (MEK peroxide) amount on strength (MOR) and density of NFPC made from replacing 50% of polyester by rice by-products. (b) Effect of initiator (MEK peroxide) amount on water up-take of NFPC made from replacing 50% of polyester by rice by-products.
Figure 10.4
(a) Effect of pressing time on strength (MOR) and density of NFPC made from replacing 50% of polyester by rice by-products. (b) Effect of pressing time on water up-take of NFPC made from replacing 50% of polyester by rice by-products.
Figure 10.5
(a) Effect of pressing temperature on strength (MOR) and density of NFPC made from replacing 50% of polyester by rice by-products. (b) Effect of pressing temperature on water up-take of NFPC made from replacing 50% of polyester by rice by-products.
Figure 10.6
(a) Effect of pressing pressure on strength (MOR) and density of NFPC made from replacing 50% of polyester by rice by-products. (b) Effect of pressing pressure on water up-take of NFPC made from replacing 50% of polyester by rice by-products.
Figure 10.7
Effect of substituting RH by RS on properties of NFPC made from replacing 50% of polyester by rice by-products.
Figure 10.8
(a) Effect of fraction size of fibers on strength (MOR) and density of NFPC made from replacing 50% of polyester by rice by-products. (b) Effect of fraction size of fibers on water up-take of NFPC made from replacing 50% of polyester by rice by-products.
Figure 10.9
(a) Comparison between the strength properties of NFPC made from polyester (PE) and polypropylene matrices by replacing 50% of their weights by rice by-products. (b) Comparison between the densities of NFPC made from polyester (PE) and polypropylene matrices by replacing 50% of their weights by rice by-products. (c) Comparison between the boiling water uptakes of NFPC made from polyester (PE) and polypropylene matrices by replacing 50% of their weights by rice by-products.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1
Lateral image of the original polyester resin sculpture.
Figure 11.2
Posterior image of the original polyester resin.
Figure 11.3
Lateral image of the 1998 “Organic Beauty” (copper patine).
Figure 11.4
Posterior image of the 1998 “Organic Beauty” (copper patine).
Figure 11.5
Upper image of the 1998 “Organic Beauty” (copper patine).
Figure 11.6
Posterior image of the 1998 “Organic Beauty” (golden patine).
Figure 11.7
Lateral image of the 1998 “Organic Beauty” (original composite).
Figure 11.8
Frontal image of the 1998 “Organic Beauty” (original composite).
Figure 11.9
A more compact “Organic Beauty” made with viscous filaments.
Figure 11.10
The three Organic Beauties made with viscous filaments.
Figure 11.11
Half of the mold being used to create the second and third sculptures.
Figure 11.12
The horse being sculptured by construction.
Figure 11.13
Use of the hot air blower to make adjustments in the horse sculpture.
Figure 11.14
Horse sculpture.
Figure 11.15
Rhinoceros being created.
Figure 11.16
Rhinoceros.
Figure 11.17
Hippopotamus being created.
Figure 11.18
Hippopotamus created by construction.
Figure 11.19
Ballerina sculptured during the extruder’s cleaning.
Figure 11.20
Ballerina.
Figure 11.21
Detail of the piece made with HDPE and silk-floss.
Figure 11.22
Detail of the sandy texture of composite 2.5% wt% fiber-PP when compacted.
Figure 11.23
Different Brazilian fibers with polypropylene.
Legend (left to right): 1 – Pampas-grass (
Cortaderia selloana)
, 2 –
Chorisia speciosa
(silk-floss), 3 –
Ananas erectifolius
(curauá), 4 – Coir fibers, 5 – Luffa cylindrica (sponge-gourd), 6 –
Agave sisalana
(sisal), 7 – Leaves residues.
Figure 11.24
Use of paper mold to build common pieces with decorative details.
Figure 11.25
Use of rotatory base and cooling to avoid wall collapse.
Figure 11.26
Ordinary pieces built with the use of the rotator base or simple molds.
Figure 11.27
3D letters made of PP
Figure 11.28
3D numbers made of black PP.
Figure 11.29
3D plastic text.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1
Natural fibers focusing on plant-based bio-fibers – focuses of this chapter are indicated in blue.
Figure 12.2
Reinforced composites – focuses of this chapter are indicated in blue.
Figure 12.3
(a) Short, (b) long and (c) continuous fiber reinforced WPC.
Figure 12.4
Microscopic structure of hardwood (
Robinia pseudoacacia
) by SEM – (a) end grain section, (b) tangential section – photo: Zoltán Börcsök.
Figure 12.5
Image of wood flour (a), microparticles (b) and fibers (c) actually fiber bundles.
Figure 12.6
Processes to produce particles (chips) by mechanical reduction.
Figure 12.7
Fiber breaking and fibrillation during processing of elements (Gescutti
et al.
2006).
Figure 12.8
Element size distribution of sanding dust, sawdust and wood fibers (Horváth 2014).
Figure 12.9
Basic shapes of wood particles.
Figure 12.10
Particle size diameter definitions.
Figure 12.11
Tensile strength of wood-PLA composites from various wood elements and loads.
Figure 12.12
Bending strength of wood-PLA composites from various wood elements and loads.
Figure 12.13
Microscopy images of wood flour (a), micro particle (b) and wood fibers (c) – photo: Sándor Fehér.
Figure 12.14
Failure sections of PLA-flax composite after tensile strength test.
Figure 12.15
Micro-impregnation of PLA into flax threads.
Figure 12.16
Pull-out of elemental fiber from PLA matrix at a failure surface of a biaxial composite.
Figure 12.17
Pull-out and break of very long elemental fiber at a failure surface of a biaxial composite.
Figure 12.18
Tensile strength values of UD and bi-axial fabrics reinforced PLA and PP composites.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1
SEM images of NEO 380 polyol-based foams with apparent densities of 80 (a), 150 (b), 400 (c), and 600 kg/m
3
(d).
Figure 13.2
XRD spectra of organoclays, neat polyol, and Cloisite 15A (a) and Cloisite 30B (b) dispersed in the NEO 380 polyol at 1 and 5 wt.%.
Figure 13.3
Engineering stress/strain diagrams of high (a) and low (b) density foams containing NEO 380 polyol.
Figure 13.4
Nominal stress-strain diagrams in tension of monolithic PUR containing polyols derived from tall oil (solid lines) and NEO 380 (dashed lines).
Figure 13.5
The Young’s modulus and yield strength of monolithic PUR based on different polyols.
Figure 13.6
Relative strength vs. relative modulus of foams with an apparent density of 200 kg/m
3
produced using polyols of different origin. The solid line plots the linear regression.
Figure 13.7
Young’s modulus (a) and tensile strength (b) of foams vs. foam density. Markers denote the experimental characteristics of PUR foams based on the NEO 380 polyol (◊), CRETE (---, ●) (Goods
et al.,
1998), PUR240 (■) (Kabir
et al.,
2006), and Necuron (π) (Marsavina
et al.,
2014). The solid lines show the approximation of experimental data with power-law relations.
Figure 13.8
Theoretical prediction of relative elastic modulus as a function of relative foam density according to the Mori–Tanaka (MT), differential scheme (DS), generalized self-consistent (GSC), and self-consistent (SC) models.
Figure 13.9
Comparison of experimental and predicted PUR foam stiffnesses in the whole density range considered (a) and at a low foam density (b) for the Mori-Tanaka (MT), differential scheme (DS), generalized self-consistent (GSC), the two-step homogenization (SC+MT), orientational averaging (OA), and Kelvin cell (KC) models.
Figure 13.10
Variation of the Poisson’s ratio of foams with relative density.
Figure 13.11
Variation of the tensile strength of foams with relative density.
Figure 13.12
Experimentally measured tensile stiffness (a) and strength (b) of foams with a density of ca. 200 kg/m
3
containing polyols of different origin vs. theoretical prediction. The solid lines correspond to a perfect agreement between the prediction and test results.
Figure 13.13
Average cell size in the foam rise direction as a function of filler loading for the foams of density 200 kg/m
3
.
Figure 13.14
Empirical distributions of cell size along the rise and flow direction of PUR foams with a Cloisite 15A content of 0, 0.5, and 2.68 wt.%.
Figure 13.15
The Young’s modulus (a) and yield strength in compression (b) of a monolithic PUR filled with Cloisite 15A (O) and Cloisite 30B (□) organoclays as functions of clay loading by weight. The lines plot linear approximations of the respective experimental data for Cloisite 15A up to 1.29 wt.% (solid lines) and for Cloisite 30B up to 2.63 wt.% (dashed lines).
Figure 13.16
The normalized Young’s modulus of PUR foams filled with Cloisite 15A (a) and Cloisite 30B (b) organoclays as a function of clay loading.
Figure 13.17
The normalized tensile strength of organoclay-filled PUR foams a function of clay weight fraction.
Figure 13.18
The normalized compressive strength of PUR foams filled with Cloisite 15A (a) and Cloisite 30B (b) organoclays as a function of clay weight fraction.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1
Chemical structures of G-block, M-block, and alternating block in alginate.
Figure 14.2
The scheme of dual-jet system for co-electrospinning of chitosan/alginate fibers (Sill
et al.,
2008).
Figure 14.3
Schematic depiction of the
in vitro
cultivation of dispersed islet single cells, formation of islet cell-spheroids using concave microwell arrays, and the process of spheroids encapsulation within CAC (Lee
et al.,
2012).
Figure 14.4
Conjugated hydrogel formation through HRP-catalyzed cross-links between Ph moieties incorporated on gelatin-Ph and Alg-Ph (Liu
et al.,
2013).
Figure 14.5
Schematic structure of the two-active-layer composite membrane (Gao
et al.,
2014).
Figure 14.6
Formation process for the preparation of the drug loaded SA/BC hybrid hydrogels with a IPN structure (Shi
et al.,
2014).
Figure 14.7
Easing process for the drug loaded SA/BC hybrid hydrogels under electric field (Shi
et al.,
2014).
Figure 14.8
Chemical procedure for synthesis of TBA-Alg extended PU ionomer (Daemi
et al.,
2014).
Figure 14.9
Chemical procedure for synthesis of PU-g-CaA (Wang
et al.,
2014).
Figure 14.10
SEM image of the flexible sodium–alginate/polyurethane composite foam at 50x magnification (Sone
et al.,
2009).
Figure 14.11
Morphology of PVA and SA/PVA (Yang
et al.,
2014).
Figure 14.12
Schematic illustration of
γ
-PGA -coated alginate gel beads, which show a rapid release of the encapsulated protein with lag time. The polymer coating act as a barrier to disintegration due to the swelling of alginate gels because of ion exchange of Ca
2+
with Na
+
. As the osmotic pressure increases inside gels, the polymer layer eventually delaminates to form flakes and enable protein release (Suzuki
et al.,
2013).
Figure 14.13
The scheme of the chemical interaction between SF and SA in the aqueous solution (Ming & Zuo, 2014).
Figure 14.14
Reaction scheme of the (a) alginate modification with 2-(2-pyridyldithio)ethyleneamine (PDEA) and (b) thiol disulfide exchange between Thiol-reactive alginate (alginate-S-S-py) conjugation intermediate and thiol-terminated peptides (Bubenikova
et al.,
2012).
Figure 14.15
Reaction scheme for the alginate modified with collagen peptides (Fan
et al.,
2013).
Figure 4.16
Uses of silver (right-hand side) and AgNPs (left-hand side) in medicine (Chaloupka
et al.,
2010).
Figure 14.17
Graph showing (a) swelling ratio of alginate and Alginate/nanoTiO
2
, and (b) percentage of degradation of alginate and Alginate/nanoTiO
2
(Rani
et al.,
2011).
Figure 14.18
Effect of contact time on sorption capacity of Fe
3
O
4
particles, CaAlg composite and Fe
3
O
4
/SA-Ce beads (Gopalakannan & Viswanathan, 2015).
Figure 14.19
Schematic representation of the SA/GO nanocomposite films structure (Ionita
et al.,
2013).
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1
Structure of
B. mori
SF. Adapted with permission from (Asakura
et al.,
2015); Copyright 2015 ACS publications.
Figure 15.2
SEM image of
B. mori
SF (a) longitudinal. Reprinted with permission from (H.-P. Zhao, Feng, & Shi, 2007); Copyright 2007 Elsevier. (b) cross-section. Reprinted with permission from (Perez-Rigueiro, Viney, Llorca, Elices, & Pe, 1998); Copyright 1998 John Wiley and Sons.
Figure 15.3
Schematic diagram of electrospinning system: A, syringe pump; B, high-voltage power supply; C, syringe; D, polymer solution; E, needle; F, metal electrode; G, grounded collection drum. Reprinted with permission from (W H. Park, Jeong, Yoo, & Hudson, 2004); Copyright 2004 Elsevier.
Figure 15.4
A wet spinning line for spinning regenerated SF: A: nitrogen gas cylinder, B: pressure regulator, C: dope storage cylinder, D: spinning dope, E: extrusion die, F: heated coagulation bath, G: draw rollers, H: take-up roller. Adapted with permission from (Yan, Zhou, Knight, Shao, & Chen, 2010); Copyright 2010 ACS publications.
Figure 15.5
Fabrication of layer-by-layer assembled gelatin -
B. mori
SF films. Reprinted with permission from (Mandal, Mann, & Kundu, 2009); Copyright 2009 Elsevier.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1
An intra-ply braided carbon-glass hybrid composite with 75% carbon; lightly shaded tows represent glass fiber (Sutcliffe
et al.,
2012).
Figure 16.2
Comparison of prediction of longitudinal modulus from equation 16.1 and finite element analysis (Bannerjee & Sankar, 2014).
Figure 16.3
Walls and roof panels made of glass fiber/ natural fiber hybrid composites (www.compositestechnologypark.com).
Figure 16.4
Bicycle made of carbon fiber/ flax fiber hybrid composite (JEC Composites, 2015).
Figure 16.5
Manufacturing of a small boat made from glass/sugar palm fiber reinforced unsaturated polyester composites in progress (Misri
et al.,
2014).
Figure 16.6
Tensile stress–strain curves (a) and failure strain (b) of flax/glass fiber reinforced hybrid composites with different hybrid fiber ratios (Zhang
et al.,
2013).
Figure 16.7
Comparison of S-N curves of hemp fiber composites with hemp/glass fiber hybrid composites (Shahzad, 2012).
Figure 16.8
Effect of fiber length on tensile strength of sisal fiber reinforced polymer (SRP), glass fiber reinforced polymer (GRP) and sisal/glass fiber reinforced hybrid polymer (SGRP) composites (Kalaprasad
et al.,
2004).
Figure 16.9
Decrease in moisture absorption with increase in glass fiber content in jute/glass fabric hybrid composites (Ahmed
et al.,
2006).
Figure 16.10
Effect of fiber loading on tensile strength of the hybrid composites made by compression molding (CM) and resin transfer molding (RTM) (Idicula
et al.,
2009).
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1
(a) Tensile testing of FRP; (b) tensile fracture samples of sisal FRP; (c) tensile fracture samples of jute FRP; (d) tensile fracture samples of carbon and glass FRP.
Figure 17.2
(a) Flexural testing of FRP; (b) flexural fracture in sisal FRP; (c) flexural fracture in jute FRP; (d) flexural fracture in carbon FRP; (e) flexural fracture in glass FRP.
Figure 17.3
Reinforcement detailing of the RC beams (for all beam groups).
Figure 17.4
(a) Surface preparation of beams by grinding; (b) primer application on beam surface; (c) application of epoxy hardener mix; (d) bonding of glass fabric; (e) bonding of glass fabric in strips; (f) bonding of carbon fabric; (g) bonding of carbon fabric in strips; (h) bonding of sisal fabric; (i) bonding of sisal fabric in strips; (j) bonding of jute fabric; (k) bonding of jute fabric in strips; (l) final coating of epoxy hardener mix on the bonded fabrics.
Figure 17.5
(a) Two pint loading system or third-point bending system; (b) two pint loading system used in the laboratory using 50 ton loading frame.
Figure 17.6
(a) Load vs. mid-span deflection of controlled, sisal strip and sisal fully wrapped beams; (b) load vs. mid-span deflection of controlled, jute strip and jute fully wrapped beams; (c) load vs. mid-span deflection of controlled, carbon strip and carbon fully wrapped beams; (d) load vs. mid-span deflection of controlled, glass strip and glass fully wrapped beams.
Figure 17.7
(a) Flexural fracture in Con1 (b) Flexural fracture and failure of sisal FRP in SF1; (c) flexural fracture and failure of jute FRP in JF1 (d) Flexural fracture and rupture of carbon FRP in CF1; (e) flexural fracture and debonding of glass FRP in GF1 (f) Flexural cracks in SF3; (g) Flexural cracks in JF3; (h) Flexural cracks in CF3; (i) Flexural cracks in GF3.
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1
BMW i3 life module.
Figure 18.2
All carbon fiber wheels made by Mubea Carbotech.
Figure 18.3
Recycling processes for composites: techniques and maximum production rates.
Figure 18.4
Depolymerization products from Hitachi process.
Figure 18.5
The Recyclamine working principle.
Figure 18.6
Cannon Afros plant used for HP-RTM trials (1000tons press and high pressure metering mixing unit).
Figure 18.7
Scheme of chemical recycling of cured composites.
Figure 18.8
Dog bone specimens obtained by injection moulding of the epoxy thermoplastic obtained from chemical recycling of the epoxy composites.
Figure 18.9
Effect of precuring time: tanδ (sx); storage modulus(dx).
Figure 18.10
Tanδ vs temperature for the carbon specimens: precured vs postcured.
Figure 18.11
Tensile properties for samples cured for 8min: strength (sx) and modulus (dx).
Figure 18.12
Flexural properties for samples cured for 8 min: strength (sx) and modulus (dx).
Figure 18.13
SEM analysis of the fractured tensile specimens 4NF.
Figure 18.14
Isothermal frequency sweep for the epoxy thermoplastic recovered from the chemical recycling of the epoxy composites processed by HP-RTM.
Figure 18.15
Possible structure of the epoxy thermoplastic starting from the reagents.
Figure 18.16
DMA curve for the epoxy thermoplastic recovered from the chemical recycling of the epoxy composites processed by HP-RTM
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1
Schematic representation of the DCB specimen.
Figure 19.2
Photograph of a DCB test.
Figure 19.3
Detail revealing the difficulties on the identification of the crack tip.
Figure 19.4
Schematic detail of the upper specimen arm.
Figure 19.5
Schematic representation of the three regions considered in each specimen arm.
Figure 19.6
Schematic representation of the procedure used to estimate the initial crack length correction Δ.
Figure 19.7
Plot of the load-displacement curves of the seven DCB tests.
Figure 19.8
Fracture surfaces of a DCB specimen.
Figure 19.9
Plot of the
R
-curves of the seven DCB tests.
Figure 19.10
Schematic representation of the ENF specimen.
Figure 19.11
Photography of a ENF test.
Figure 19.12
Detail revealing the difficulties on the identification of the crack tip.
Figure 19.13
(a) Schematic detail of the upper arm (0 ≤
x
≤
a
) and (b) of the total specimen height.
Figure 19.14
Load-displacement curves of the ENF specimens with
a
0
=10 mm.
Figure 19.15
R
-curves of ENF specimens with
a
0
= 10 mm.
Figure 19.16
Fracture surfaces of a ENF specimen.
Figure 19.17
Reference sandwich structure: (a) 2 × 1.5 mm of glass fiber epoxy skin; (c) 12 mm PMI core.
Figure 19.18
Cork modified sandwich structure: (a) 2 × 1.5 mm of glass fiber epoxy skin; (b) 2 × 0.5 mm cork agglomerate; (c) 12 mm PMI core.
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1
Schematic design of steam explosion reactor: (1) reactor, (2) cyclone, (3) pneumatic valve, (4) thermocouple, (5) thermometer, (6) manometer, (7) steam distribution system, (8) vent.
Figure 20.2
Microstructure of wheat straw. (a) General view of fibers. (b) Cellular structure of the central region. (c) Epidermis of the fiber (Hornsby
et al.,
1997a).
Figure 20.3
Trays made by adding straw and wheat flour (Varga 2012).
Figure 20.4
Temperature dependence of (a) storage modulus, (b) loss modulus, and (c) tan δ for the PLA and its wheat straw composites (Nyambo
et al.,
2011).
Figure 20.5
SEM images of: (a) cross-section of wheat straw; (b) microfibers; (c) TEM images (magnification 15,000x) of wheat straw nanofibers (Alemdar and Sain, 2008b).
Figure 20.6
SEM images of cryogenic fracture surfaces of PVA/nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC): a. PVA/10F-NFC; b. PVA/10WS-NFC; c. PVA/20F-NFC; d. PVA/20WS-NFC; e. PVA/40F-NFC; f. PVA/10WS-NFC; The white scale bar represents 50 microns.
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1
General categories of composites. Adapted from (Goda
et al.,
2014).
Figure 21.2
Factors that serve as the basis for the ecological classification of materials. Adapted from (Lampinen, 2010).
Figure 21.3
The production process for partially bio-based PET bottles. Adapted from (Plastice, 2014).
Figure 21.4
List and classification of available biodegradable polymers. Adapted from (Ho
et al.,
2012).
Figure 21.5
Various classes of bio-based and biodegradable polymers (excluding biodegradable plastics from petrochemical resources and non-biodegradable plastics that are partially or fully bio-sourced). Adapted from (Bugnicourt
et al.,
2014).
Figure 21.6
Difference in the worldwide bioplastics processing potential between that in 2011 and the estimation for 2016. Adapted from (European Bioplastics, 2015).
Figure 21.7
Bioplastics fabrication potential forecast for 2016 by region. Adapted from (European Bioplastics, 2015).
Figure 21.8
Worldwide bioplastics manufacturing outlook for 2016 by plastic type. Adapted from (European Bioplastics, 2015)
Figure 21.9
Cost comparison of natural fibers with E-glass fiber. Adapted from (Dittenber & GangaRao, 2012).
Figure 21.10
Summary of the available types of all-natural fibers based on their specific origins. Adapted from (Azwa
et al.,
2013).
Figure 21.11
Benefits and drawbacks of natural fibers compared with conventional glass fibers. Adapted from (Bismarck
et al.,
2006).
Figure 21.12
Generic representation of the structure of natural fibers. Adapted from (John & Thomas, 2008).
Figure 21.13
Chemical structures of various all-natural fibers. Adapted from (Azwa
et al.,
2013) using (Xie
et al.,
2010; Yao
et al.,
2008; Manfredi
et al.,
2006; Idicula
et al.,
2006; Yousif & El-Tayeb, 2009; Yousif
et al.,
2012) as sources.
Figure 21.14
Factors controlling the properties of lignocelluloses. Adapted from (Azwa
et al.,
2013).
Figure 21.15
Mechanism associated with the use of a coupling agent to improve the compatibility between hydrophilic fibers and a hydrophobic polymer matrix. Adapted from (Ashori, 2008).
Figure 21.16
Major commercial fiber sources. Adapted from (Faruk
et al.,
2012).
Figure 21.17
The oxygen permeabilities of PLA, PHB and PET and corresponding nanocomposites. Adapted from (Lagaron & Lopez-Rubio, 2011).
Figure 21.18
Groups of matrix and reinforcement materials. Adapted from (Goda
et al.,
2014).
Figure 21.19
Essential aspects related to the selection of products created from natural fiber composite materials at the fiber level. Adapted from (Al-Oqla & Sapuan, 2014).
Figure 21.20
Essential aspects related to the selection of products created from natural fiber composite materials at the polymer base (matrix) level. Adapted from (Al-Oqla & Sapuan, 2014).
Figure 21.21
Essential aspects related to the selection of products created from natural fiber composite materials at the composite level. Adapted from (Al-Oqla & Sapuan, 2014).
Figure 21.22
Essential aspects related to the selection of products created from natural fiber composite materials at the levels of general and specific composite performance. Adapted from (Al-Oqla & Sapuan, 2014).
Figure 21.23
The Bioplastics Spectrum. Comparative occupational health and safety impacts of bioplastics. BURs: bio-urethanes; PHAs: polyhydroxyalkanoates, isolated and purified via enzymatic methods; PTT: poly(trimethylene terephthalate); GMOs: genetically modified organisms. Adapted from (Álvarez-Chávez
et al.,
2012).
Figure 21.24
Representation of the flow of a melted composite in a mold.
Figure 21.25
Pressure variation during the injection molding process. Adapted from (Zheng
et al.,
2011.
Figure 21.26
Important variables for the extrusion process. Adapted from (Greene, 2014b).
Figure 21.27
Effect of a coupling agent on matrix/fiber interfaces. The fractured faces of PE/birch composites (a) without a coupling agent and (b) with a coupling agent.
Figure 21.28
Recycling system model. Adapted from (Plastice, 2014; COBRO, 2015).
Figure 21.29
Areas of sustainable development for composites. Adapted from (Plastice, 2014).
Figure 21.30
Vinçotte “OK compost”, DIN CERTCO “Geprüft” compost, “SeedlingTM” and CIC compostable logos. Sources: (CERTCO, 2015; Vinçotte, 2015; CIC, 2015).
Figure 21.31
The carbon cycle. Adapted from (Plastice, 2014).
Figure 21.32
Vinçotte certification symbol for products from renewable resources. (Vinçotte, 2015).
Figure 21.33
Certification logos for products from renewable resources issued by DIN CERTCO. Source: (CERTCO, 2015)
Figure 21.34
Certification marks for products that are biodegradable in soil or water. (Vincotte, 2015)
Figure 21.35
Logo indicating biodegradability and compostability issued by the US Composting Council and Biodegradable Products Institute. Source: (BPI, 2015)