Cover
Title Page
List of Contributors
Foreword
Editor’s Preface
1 From Marine Protected Areas to MPA Networks
1. The Ecology of Beauty
2. From Landscapes to Habitats
3. From Hunting and Gathering to Farming
4. Landscapes, Habitats and Fish are Not Enough
5. Good Environmental Status
6. Connectivity
7. Networking According to Nature or to Bureaucracy?
8. Towards a Holistic View of Marine Systems
9. The Cells of Ecosystem Functioning
10. Mapping the Seas
11. Upgrading the Observation Systems and Managing the Networks
12. Human Capacity Building
13. Extinction in the Mediterranean Sea
14. Conclusion and Recommendations
15. Acknowledgements
16. References
2 Ecological Effects and Benefits of Mediterranean Marine Protected Areas
1. Introduction
2. Ecological Benefits of MPAs
3. Management Implications
4. References
3 Typology, Management and Monitoring of Marine Protected Area Networks
1. Introduction
2. Network Formation Characteristics
3. MPA Network Typology
4. MPA Network Management and Monitoring
5. Conclusions
6. Acknowledgements
7. References
4 Marine Protected Area Governance and Effectiveness Across Networks
1. Introduction
2. How the MPA is Managed: Management Structures within MPAs
3. Who Makes Decisions: Different Governance Types within MPAs
4. The Effectiveness of MPAs
5. Conclusion: Priorities for MPA Management
6. References
5 Marine Protected Areas as Spatial Protection Measures under the Marine Strategy Framework Directive
1. Introduction
2. Area of Application of the MSFD
3. Implementation Process
4. Spatial Protection Measures
5. Types of Spatial Protection Measures
6. Closing Remarks
7. References
6 Socioeconomic Impacts of Networks of Marine Protected Areas
1. Introduction
2. State of the Art
3. MPAs in the Mediterranean and Black Seas
4. Lessons Learned for MPAs
5. Concluding Remarks
6. Acknowledgements
7. References
7 Multi‐criteria Decision‐Making for Marine Protected Area Design and Management
1. Introduction
2. Multi‐criteria Decision Methods
3. Dealing with Uncertainty
4. Choosing the Right Approach
5. Multi‐criteria Analysis in a Spatial Dimension
6. Conclusions
7. References
8 Ecosystem‐Based Management for Marine Protected Areas
1. Introduction
2. Marine Protected Areas and Networks
3. The Use of Ecosystem‐Based Management for MPAs and Networks
4. A Systematic Approach for Using the EBMS in MPA Management
5. Discussion and Conclusions
6. Acknowledgements
7. References
9 Developing Collaboration among Marine Protected Area Managers to Strengthen Network Management
1. Introduction
2. Once Upon a Time, the Mediterranean Basin Filled Up Again … and Soon Emptied
3. How the ‘Reasonable’ Person Revelation Sparks Environmental Conservation Policies
4. The Escalating Establishment of MPAs in the Mediterranean since 1960
5. From Marine Natural Features under a Bell Jar … to Participatory Measures for Managing Pressures
6. What is a Social Network?
7. MedPAN: An Example of an MPA Social Network
8. Social Network Analysis: MedPAN Network under Scrutiny
9. Possible Reasons for Joining a Niche Social Network such as MedPAN
10. How a Network of MPA Managers Strengthens the Management of MPA Networks
11. Lessons from Other MPA Social Networks Worldwide
12. What Could Come Next?
13. Acknowledgements
14. References
10 Eyes Wide Shut
1. Introduction
2. Marine Alien Species in the Mediterranean Sea
3. Porous Borders: Alien Species in MPAs
4. See No Evil
5. Management: Eyes Wide Shut
6. So What Is To Be Done?
7. References
11 Marine Protected Areas and Marine Spatial Planning, with Special Reference to the Black Sea
1. Marine Spatial Planning and Marine Protected Areas: Compatible or Conflicting Concepts?
2. The Law of the Sea: A Hindrance to MSP?
3. EU Instruments: A Fresh Impetus to MSP
4. The Black Sea: Evaluation of Progress on MSP at a Regional Level
5. Conclusion
6. References
12 Black Sea Network of Marine Protected Areas
1. Introduction
2. Overview of MPAs in the Black Sea
3. Ecological Characteristics of the Ukrainian Part of the Black Sea
4. Approaches to Management and Monitoring of MPAs in Ukraine
5. Using Environmental Sentinels for Public Monitoring of MPAs
6. Expansion of the Ukrainian MPA Network
7. Conclusion
8. Acknowledgements
9. References
13 Prospects for Marine Protected Areas in the Turkish Black Sea
1. Introduction
2. Overview of the Regional Situation
3. Turkish Perspectives and Rationale for Establishing MPAs
4. A Case Study of Şile Proposed MPA
5. Legal Framework Concerning MPAs in the Turkish Part of the Black Sea
6. Socio‐economic Benefits of MPAs in the Turkish Part of the Black Sea
7. Conclusion
8. References
14 Marine Protected Areas and Offshore Wind Farms
1. Introduction
2. Offshore Wind Farms
3. Potential Impacts of OWFs on Marine Life
4. Rejected OWF Proposals
5. Potential of Floating Platforms
6. Conclusions
7. References
Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 03
1. Table 3.1 MPA management plans included in the MPA network review process.
2. Table 3.2 MPA network typology for the Mediterranean and Black Seas.
3. Table 3.3 MPA networks and appropriate site‐level management and monitoring actions.
Chapter 04
1. Table 4.1 IUCN protected area categories.
2. Table 4.2 IUCN protected area categories: examples from MPAs.
3. Table 4.3 Typology of governance types in protected areas.
4. Table 4.4 The IUCN protected area matrix of management categories and governance types.
5. Table 4.5 Impact of MPAs on fisheries: some recent research examples from around the world.
Chapter 06
1. Table 6.1 Comprehensive list of potential socioeconomic impacts of MPAs.
2. Table 6.2 Valuation techniques available for economic valuation of ecosystem services in MPAs.
Chapter 08
1. Table 8.1 Main conclusions and recommendations concerning the status of MPAs in the Mediterranean Sea.
2. Table 8.2 Relationship between the Ecosystem Approach principles developed by the Convention on Biological Diversity and their application to MPA management frameworks.
Chapter 12
1. Table 12.1 Black Sea MPAs of international and national level in Ukraine.
2. Table 12.2 Generalized matrix of expert assessments of ecological processes in the Black Sea coastal zone.
3. Table 12.3 Average score of anthropogenic impact (AI) on selected marine and coastal sites in Ukraine.
4. Table 12.4 Matrix of cross‐correlation between seven selected biological characteristics of marine ecosystems for determination of their weight coefficients (a_i ).
5. Table 12.5 Status of protection of Black Sea coastal and marine areas in Ukraine and associated integrated index of biological value (K _f).
Chapter 13
1. Table 13.1 Main threats identified for the proposed MPAs on the Turkish coast of the Black Sea.
2. Table 13.2 Fishing methods and number of local and external fishermen.
Chapter 14
1. Table 14.1 A summary of the main effects on marine life during the construction and operational stages of OWFs.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01
1. Figure 1.1 Circulation patterns in the Mediterranean Sea. A surface current enters the basin from the Gibraltar Strait, flows through the Sicily Channel and reaches the Levant Basin. The Gibraltar Current flows back at about 500 m depth as the Levantine Intermediate Current. Water renewal below 500 m occurs through the ‘cold’ engines in the Gulf of Lions for the Western Basin and in the Northern Adriatic and Northern Aegean Seas for the Eastern Mediterranean. In the cold engines, cold, oxygen‐rich water flows through canyons (bottom left inset) with a ‘cascading’ process. The canyons outside cold engine areas can trigger upwelling events (bottom right inset). Other patterns of circulation regard the formation of gyres (top inset).
Chapter 02
1. Figure 2.1 Temporal pattern of the relative frequency of species among the largest specimens captured in the regional competitions of spear‐fishing in the Balearic Islands. It can be seen that the dusky grouper Epinephelus marginatus lost its preponderance among the biggest specimens from the end of the 1980s.
2. Figure 2.2 Temporal pattern of mean abundances of some large predatory species, and considering all piscivorous species together, in the Cabo de Palos – Islas Hormigas marine reserve, Cartagena, Spain (solid circles) and in an exploited control locality (open circles) after the establishment of protection measures in 1995. Although the first stages of recovery are fast in protected areas, total recovery is a long process.
3. Figure 2.3 Differences in temporal patterns of biomass of six highly vulnerable fish species (Epinephelus marginatus, Sparus aurata, Dentex dentex, Dicentrachus labrax, Diplodus cervinus and Sciaena umbra) monitored vs. time of protection for marine reserve (solid circles), partially protected reserve (open circles) and non‐reserve (solid triangles), in the Medes Islands marine reserve and neighbouring coast.
4. Figure 2.4 The differences in carrying capacity and recovery time between the Medes Islands MPA and three Balearic MPAs are evident despite the fact that the biomass of only six species were taken into account in the Medes Islands, whereas in the Balearic Islands MPAs total commercial fish biomass was included.
5. Figure 2.5 Total fish biomass in several MPAs and areas open to fishing in the Mediterranean Sea. The differences between well‐enforced no‐take reserves and other MPAs are obvious, but the differences between different well‐enforced protected areas are also striking, indicating that factors other than effective protection have a strong influence on fish biomass. AP, apex predators; CA, carnivores; ZP, zooplanktivores; HE, herbivores and detritivores.
6. Figure 2.6 Mean commercial fish biomass at Nord de Menorca marine reserve at three protection levels; note that fish biomass at site 1 (closed circles) in the partially protected area is clearly superior to the biomass observed at site 2 (open circles) of the no‐take area.
7. Figure 2.7 Temporal trends of abundance and biomass of the spiny lobster Palinurus elephas in the Medes Islands MPA over a period of 20 years.
8. Figure 2.8 Classical model of a trophic cascade due to overfishing in rocky infralittoral algal assemblages. Recent studies have demonstrated that factors other than fishing are important in regulating sea urchin densities in the Mediterranean Sea.
9. Figure 2.9 Mean density (individuals per 10 m² ± SE) of sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus (>1 cm diameter) inside and outside the Medes Islands MPA on boulder substrates. Arrows indicate abnormally high peaks of annual recruitment. R, reserve; NR, non‐reserve.
10. Figure 2.10 (a) Observed and expected total biomass values (Bt_o and Bt_e, respectively) in two no‐take sites from two marine reserves where the model was tested: Mitgjorn Marine Reserve (MIG 1 and MIG 2) and Cabrera National Park (EST and FOR). (b) Bt_o in increasing order of Bt_e values from 28 exploited sites of the Balearic Islands; the grey band shows the biomass range window within the exploitation status of each site that could be considered sustainable (0.35 K < Bt < 0.63 K, K being the value of carrying capacity).
Chapter 03
1. Figure 3.1 Schematic representation of nested and overlapping MPA network types.
Chapter 04
1. Figure 4.1 Protected area coverage in percentage for the 232 marine ecoregions of the world.
2. Figure 4.2 WCPA protected area management effectiveness framework.
Chapter 06
1. Figure 6.1 Links between functions, services and well‐being adopted by The Economics of Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity (TEEB).
Chapter 07
1. Figure 7.1 Pareto analysis of different management options for the Camargue eel fishery with respect to two objectives (maximizing adult spawner escape and maximizing fishing yield). Each symbol represents a management policy; filled symbols indicate Pareto‐efficient policies (Pareto boundary). Policies within the shaded area dominate the current fishery management with respect to both objectives.
2. Figure 7.2 Examples of utility functions: (a) economic value (million dollars) of recreational harvest in Lake Erie; (b) average wage of fishermen employed in the demersal fishery of the southern Adriatic Sea (CW, current wage); (c) chlorophyll‐a concentration in Lake Erie (µg/l); (d) fishing mortality of demersal species in the southern Adriatic Sea (F_MSY, fishing mortality at maximum sustainable yield).
3. Figure 7.3 Hierarchy of performance criteria for the assessment of a candidate MPA in western Canada.
4. Figure 7.4 Taxonomy of imperfect knowledge and the corresponding range of uncertainty.
5. Figure 7.5 Examples of sensitivity analyses. (a) Optimal policy for nutrient management in Lake Erie as a function of the weights assigned to chlorophyll‐a concentration and balance of the fish community. (b) Empirical frequency distribution of the overall utility of four management policies for the demersal fishery of the southern Adriatic Sea.
6. Figure 7.6 Basic steps of a Marine Spatial Planning process.
Chapter 08
1. Figure 8.1 The MPAs of the ‘Cap de Creus’ region. (1) The ‘Cap de Creus’ SCI, a maritime‐terrestrial Natural Park. (2) The ‘Sistema de cañones submarinos occidentales del Golfo de León’ SCI, an offshore Natura 2000 area.
2. Figure 8.2 A DPSWR representation of the platform of indicators for the EBMS information pillar. Ecosystem service provision icons obtained from The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB).
3. Figure 8.3 The managerial pillar of the EBMS showing the different stages used in the policy cycle, following the Deming cycle of management.
Chapter 09
1. Figure 9.1 Number of national MPAs established since 1963 up to 2013, and cumulative number.
2. Figure 9.2 Map of all MPA entries from MAPAMED (top) and representation of MedPAN member MPAs (bottom).
Chapter 10
1. Figure 10.1 The number of non‐indigenous species (NIS) in some Mediterranean countries. In dark grey is the fraction of species probably introduced through the Suez Canal. The circle sizes are proportionate to the total number of NIS recorded in the country by 2016.
2. Figure 10.2 Rabbitfish Siganus rivulatus in a heavily grazed rocky reef, Akhziv MPA, Israel.
3. Figure 10.3 Pterois miles, an Erythraean lionfish, at Akhziv MPA, Israel.
Chapter 12
1. Figure 12.1 The Black Sea MPAs of international and national importance.
2. Figure 12.2 Historical stages of eutrophic status in the north‐west Black Sea shelf: I – natural state; II – intensive eutrophication; III – immobility; IV – steady trend of de‐eutrophication (SI reflects the intensity of primary production processes in marine coastal ecosystem; S/W reflects the ecological activity of bottom vegetation: see text for details).
3. Figure 12.3 Current Ukrainian MPA network and proposed new MPAs.
Chapter 13
1. Figure 13.1 Circulation patterns in the Black Sea (see text for details).
2. Figure 13.2 Sub‐ecoregions of the Black Sea and proposed MPAs in Turkish Black Sea waters. 1, Pre‐Bosphoric Region; 2, North‐western Shelf; 3, Kerch Strait; 4, Southern Part. A, İğneada; B, Şile‐Kefken; C, Doğanyurt; D, Samsun deltas; E, Mezgit Reef.
3. Figure 13.3 Sink regions for modelled pelagic larvae. Dashed lines encircle the proposed five MPAs for the southern Black Sea coast (see text). The thick black line marks the 1700 m isobath separating coastal regions from the open sea. Virtual larvae were released within the 6 km band surrounding the entire Black Sea coast.
4. Figure 13.4 Connectivity matrices for modelled pelagic larvae released in coastal regions only (see Figure 13.2) on 1 January, 1 April and 1 July (first to third column) in each of the years 2001, 2002 and 2003 (first to third row) with a PLD of 45 days. Matrices indicate the probability (%) for larvae originating from a source region (x‐axis) to be transported to a sink region (y‐axis) estimated from individual 30‐day trajectories. The thick black line separates shelf regions from open sea regions >1700 m deep (R12–15).
5. Figure 13.5 End points for modelled pelagic larvae with a PLD of 45 days released in coastal regions only (see Figure 13.2) on 1 July 2002 for the coastal region (a) 1, (b) 2, (c) 3 and (d) 4. Grey shades denote the different regions these larvae ended up in (see Figure 13.3). Black squares in (a), (b), (c) and (d) show the end points of pelagic larvae released in Şile, Doğanyurt, Kızılırmak and Mezgit Reef, respectively. Open black diamonds in (a) show the end points of those released in İğneada.

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ISBN: 9781119075776

List of Contributors

Alexandrov, Boris
Institute of Marine Biology
National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
Odessa
Ukraine
Email: borys.aleksandrov@gmail.com

Arkin, Sinan
Institute of Marine Science
Middle East Technical University
Erdemli
Mersin
Turkey

Beal, Stephen
NatureBureau
Newbury
UK
Email: stephen_beal@hotmail.co.uk

Bitetto, Isabella
COISPA Tecnologia & Ricerca
Bari
Italy

Boero, Ferdinando
Università del Salento – CNR‐ISMAR
Italy
Email: boero@unisalento.it

Braun, Daniel
Research Group of Prof. Dr. Detlef Czybulka
Faculty of Law
University of Rostock
Germany
Email: daniel.braun@o2online.de

Breil, Margaretha
Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei (FEEM) and Euro‐Mediterranean Center for Climate Change
Venezia
Italy

Cebrian, Emma
Centre d’Estudis Avançats de Blanes (CEAB‐CSIC)
Girona
Spain;
Department of Environmental Sciences
University of Montilivi
Girona
Spain

Claudet, Joachim
National Center for Scientific Research
CRIOBE
Perpignan
France

Dominguez‐Carrió, Carlos
Institut de Ciències del Mar (ICM‐CSIC)
Barcelona
Spain

Dudley, Nigel
Equilibrium Research
Bristol
UK;
School of Geography
Planning and Environmental Management at the University of Queensland
Brisbane
Australia
Email: nigel@equilibriumresearch.com

Evans, Julian
Department of Biology
Faculty of Science
University of Malta
Malta

Fach, Bettina A.
Institute of Marine Science
Middle East Technical University
Erdemli
Mersin
Turkey

Galil, Bella
The Steinhardt Museum of Natural History
Israel National Center for Biodiversity Studies
Tel Aviv University
Tel Aviv
Israel
Email: bella@ocean.org.il

Garcia‐Rubies, Antoni
Centre d’Estudis Avançats de Blanes (CEAB‐CSIC)
Girona
Spain
Email: tonigr@ceab.csic.es

Gili, Josep Maria
Institut de Ciències del Mar (ICM‐CSIC)
Barcelona
Spain

Goriup, Paul D.
NatureBureau
Newbury
UK
Email: paul.goriup@fieldfare.biz

Haynes, Thomas
NatureBureau
Newbury
UK

Hockings, Marc
School of Geography
Planning and Environmental Management at the University of Queensland
Brisbane
Australia

Keskin, Çetin
Faculty of Fisheries
Istanbul University
Beyazıt
Istanbul
Turkey

Macpherson, Enrique
Centre d’Estudis Avançats de Blanes (CEAB‐CSIC)
Girona
Spain

March, David
SOCIB – Balearic Islands Coastal Observing and Forecasting System
Palma
Spain

Markandya, Anil
Basque Centre for Climate Change (BC3)
Bilbao
Spain;
Ikerbasque Foundation
Bilbao
Spain

Melià, Paco
Dipartimento di Elettronica
Informazione e Bioingegneria
Politecnico di Milano
Milano
Italy;
Consorzio Nazionale Interuniversitario per le Scienze del Mare
Roma
Italy
Email: paco.melia@polimi.it

Minicheva, Galina
Institute of Marine Biology
National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
Odessa
Ukraine

Ojea, Elena
Basque Centre for Climate Change (BC3)
Bilbao
Spain;
University of Vigo
Spain
Email: elenaojea@uvigo.es

Öztürk, Ayaka Amaha
Faculty of Fisheries
Istanbul University
Beyazıt
Istanbul
Turkey

Öztürk, Bayram
Faculty of Fisheries
Istanbul University
Beyazıt
Istanbul
Turkey
Email: ozturkb@istanbul.edu.tr

Pascual, Marta
Basque Centre for Climate Change (BC3)
Bilbao
Spain;
Ikerbasque Foundation
Bilbao
Spain

Requena, Susana
Institut de Ciències del Mar (ICM‐CSIC)
Barcelona
Spain

Sanders, Natalie
NatureBureau
Newbury
UK
Email: Natalie@NatureBureau.co.uk

Sardá, Rafael
Centre d’Estudis Avançats de Blanes (CEAB‐CSIC)
Girona
Spain
Email: sarda@ceab.csic.es

Schachtner, Eva
Leibniz Institute of Ecological Urban and Regional Development
Dresden
Germany
Email: eva.coconet@gmx.de

Schembri, Patrick J.
Department of Biology
Faculty of Science
University of Malta
Malta
Email: patrick.j.schembri@um.edu.mt

Topaloğlu, Bülent
Faculty of Fisheries
Istanbul University
Beyazıt
Istanbul
Turkey

Webster, Chloë
Mediterranean Protected Areas Network (MedPAN)
Marseilles
France
Email: chloe.webster@medpan.org

Zaitsev, Yuvenaliy
Institute of Marine Biology
National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
Odessa
Ukraine

Management of Marine Protected Areas

A Network Perspective

List of Contributors