Axelos, M. A. V. and Van de Voorde, M. (eds.)

Nanotechnology in Agriculture and Food Science

2017

Print ISBN: 9783527339891

Cornier, J., Kwade, A., Owen, A., Van de Voorde, M. (eds.)

Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology

Innovation and Production

2017

Print ISBN: 9783527340545

Fermon, C. and Van de Voorde, M. (eds.)

Nanomagnetism

Applications and Perspectives

2017

Print ISBN: 9783527339853

Meyrueis, P., Sakoda, K., Van de Voorde, M. (eds.)

Micro- and Nanophotonic Technologies

2017

Print ISBN: 9783527340378

Müller, B. and Van de Voorde, M. (eds.)

Nanoscience and Nanotechnology for Human Health

2017

Print ISBN: 9783527338603

Puers, R., Baldi, L., van Nooten, S. E., Van de Voorde, M. (eds.)

Nanoelectronics

Materials, Devices, Applications

2017

Print ISBN: 9783527340538

Raj, B., Van de Voorde, M., Mahajan, Y. (eds.)

Nanotechnology for Energy Sustainability

2017

Print ISBN: 9783527340149

Sels, B. and Van de Voorde, M. (eds.)

Nanotechnology in Catalysis

Applications in the Chemical Industry, Energy Development, and Environment Protection

2017

Print ISBN: 9783527339143

Thanks to my wife for her patience with me spending many hours working on the book series through the nights and over weekends. The assistance of my son Marc Philip related to the complex and large computer files with many sophisticated scientific figures is also greatly appreciated.

Marcel Van de Voorde

Since years, nanoscience and nanotechnology have become particularly an important technology areas worldwide. As a result, there are many universities that offer courses as well as degrees in nanotechnology. Many governments including European institutions and research agencies have vast nanotechnology programmes and many companies file nanotechnology-related patents to protect their innovations. In short, nanoscience is a hot topic!

Nanoscience started in the physics field with electronics as a forerunner, quickly followed by the chemical and pharmacy industries. Today, nanotechnology finds interests in all branches of research and industry worldwide. In addition, governments and consumers are also keen to follow the developments, particularly from a safety and security point of view.

This books series fills the gap between books that are available on various specific topics and the encyclopedias on nanoscience. This well-selected series of books consists of volumes that are all edited by experts in the field from all over the world and assemble top-class contributions. The topical scope of the book is broad, ranging from nanoelectronics and nanocatalysis to nanometrology. Common to all the books in the series is that they represent top-notch research and are highly application-oriented, innovative, and relevant for industry. Finally they collect a valuable source of information on safety aspects for governments, consumer agencies and the society.

The titles of the volumes in the series are as follows:

Human-related nanoscience and nanotechnology

• Nanoscience and Nanotechnology for Human Health
• Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology
• Nanotechnology in Agriculture and Food Science

Nanoscience and nanotechnology in information and communication

• Nanoelectronics
• Micro- and Nanophotonic Technologies
• Nanomagnetism: Perspectives and Applications

Nanoscience and nanotechnology in industry

• Nanotechnology for Energy Sustainability
• Metrology and Standardization of Nanomaterials
• Nanotechnology in Catalysis: Applications in the Chemical Industry, Energy Development, and Environmental Protection

The book series appeals to a wide range of readers with backgrounds in physics, chemistry, biology, and medicine, from students at universities to scientists at institutes, in industrial companies and government agencies and ministries.

Ever since nanoscience was introduced many years ago, it has greatly changed our lives – and will continue to do so!

March 2016 Marcel Van de Voorde

Marcel Van de Voorde, Prof. Dr. ir. Ing. Dr. h.c., has 40 years' experience in European Research Organisations, including CERN-Geneva and the European Commission, with 10 years at the Max Planck Institute for Metals Research, Stuttgart. For many years, he was involved in research and research strategies, policy, and management, especially in European research institutions.

He has been a member of many Research Councils and Governing Boards of research institutions across Europe, the United States, and Japan. In addition to his Professorship at the University of Technology in Delft, the Netherlands, he holds multiple visiting professorships in Europe and worldwide. He holds a doctor honoris causa and various honorary professorships.

He is a senator of the European Academy for Sciences and Arts, Salzburg, and Fellow of the World Academy for Sciences. He is a member of the Science Council of the French Senate/National Assembly in Paris. He has also provided executive advisory services to presidents, ministers of science policy, rectors of Universities, and CEOs of technology institutions, for example, to the president and CEO of IMEC, Technology Centre in Leuven, Belgium. He is also a Fellow of various scientific societies. He has been honored by the Belgian King and European authorities, for example, he received an award for European merits in Luxemburg given by the former President of the European Commission. He is author of multiple scientific and technical publications and has coedited multiple books, especially in the field of nanoscience and nanotechnology.

Nanotechnology metrology and standardization are of growing importance in the era of globalization. Applications of nanotechnologies have accelerated in many countries over the past decade, triggered by the US National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) in 2000. Nanotechnologies are a strong driving force in various industries to improve existing products and create new products. Progress in the development of such products requires advanced metrologies because measurements of nano-objects are very challenging. On the other hand, commercialization and global trade of products requires standardization that gives the basis for the dissemination of nanotechnologies to society.

The importance of international standards and standardization activities is continually increasing. Over 160 countries are members of the World Trade Organization (WTO), which established the rules of trade between nations by the agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) signed in 1995. Industrial products are spreading worldwide in the era of globalization and many countries around the world now participate actively in efforts to develop international standards. Standardization of nanotechnologies attracted attention in 2004 led by efforts from CEN (European Committee for Standardization), ANSI (American National Standards Institute), and JSA (Japan Standards Association). In 2005–2006, several major standards development organizations (SDOs) established technical committees (TCs) focused on nanotechnology: ISO TC 229, CEN TC 352, ASTM International E56, and IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) TC 113. The combined efforts of these Committees have produced a large body of standards concerning terminology, physicochemical and biological measurements, and the environmental, health, and safety of nanomaterials and nanotechnologies.

Standardization of nanotechnology has been accelerated not only to promote industrial application of nanotechnology but also to bring about social acceptance of nanotechnology. The importance of the latter aspect becomes prominent by reports that suggest nanomaterials (nano-objects) may be harmful to human health and ecological systems. Reflecting the increasing interest in precautionary actions for the handling of nanomaterials, efforts among the SDOs mentioned above have been aimed at the implementation of future regulations. Some of the efforts have been already implemented as “list of recognized standards” by FDA. It has adopted four nanotechnology standards: two technical specifications of ISO (TS 14101 for surface characterization of gold and TS 8004-6 for vocabulary of nano-object characterization) and two ASTM standards (E2490 for measurement of particle size distribution, and E2535 for handling unbound nanoparticle in occupational setting). Moreover, France has set regulations that requests companies and private and public research laboratories to declare the use (producing, distributing, and importing) of substances at the nanoscale beginning January 1, 2013.

With regard to nanometrology, for example, EC regulation (no. 1907/2006) concerns “substances intentionally produced at nanometric scale, containing particles, in an unbound state or as an aggregate or as an agglomerate and where, for a minimum proportion of particles in the number size distribution, one or more external dimensions is in the size range 1–100 nm.” It is necessary to show the number size distribution of substance in the size range 1–100 nm, even if the substance contains both particles in unbound and bound/fused states. Since it is a rather hard task to precisely analyze such substances with high-resolution measurement techniques applicable to nanoscale objects, current measurement techniques need further improvement. It follows that the development of nanometrology and nanomaterial standards support further improvement of measurement techniques adaptable to nanoscale characterization, leading to both essential progress of nanotechnology and social acceptance of nanotechnology. It is because the first step of measurement can be considered as “the process of quantitatively comparing a variable characteristic, property, or attribute of a substance, object, or system to some norm.” The major targets of nanometrology are, for example, the analysis of dimensional, chemical, mechanical, and electrical properties of thin films and/or nanostructured materials, and also bionano materials. The growing number of journal articles on nanometrology and the growing number of standards clearly suggests that the importance of nanometrology is reaffirmed through the activation of nanotechnology standardization. It is, therefore, necessary to pay great attention to the progress of both nanometrology and nanotechnology standardization, which are described in detail in this excellent book.

Professor and Director of Strategic Innovation Office Nagoya University/Japan Shingo Ichimura

and

Special Emeritus Advisor of National Institute of

Advanced Industrial Science and Technology/Japan

July 2016

Nanotechnology, first coined as a discipline in 2000, has applications in myriad sectors, including healthcare, energy, and transportation. In this book, engineered nanomaterials are considered to be materials that have been purposely synthesized or manufactured to have at least one external dimension of approximately 1–100 nm and that exhibit unique properties determined by this size. Engineered nanomaterials, also referred to as nanomaterials throughout this book, are increasingly incorporated into consumer products and military goods, referred to as nanotechnology-enabled products or simply products. The development and manufacturing of engineered nanomaterials and products are contingent on trustworthy, validated measurements of nanomaterial properties, and product performance. Such measurements are challenging due to a number of factors, including the small dimensions and surface-dominated behavior of nanomaterials and the need to perform measurements in realistic, complex environments. These and other challenges are present at all life cycle stages, from the production of nanomaterials and manufacture of products to use and disposal or recycling of both nanomaterials and products.

Metrology – the science of measurement – is essential to the development of new instruments and methods to image, characterize, and manipulate nanomaterials, the adaptation of existing methods for large-scale materials and chemicals to nanomaterials, and the interpretation and understanding of all measurements. Standards, including consensus-based documentary standards and reference materials, are required to ensure accurate and reproducible measurements of nanomaterials and products. This book is an informational resource for researchers, developers, manufacturers, and regulators on the state and importance of metrology and standards for nanotechnology and on current and emerging applications of nanotechnology in various sectors.

Contents of this Book

The chapters in this book are organized in six major parts:

• Introduction: Chapter 1 provides an overview of standards, beginning with a general discussion of the importance of standardization to trade, technology, and innovation. The remainder of the chapter addresses nanotechnology standards, specifically three types of standards-related products: consensus-based documentary standards published by standards development organizations; reference materials and certified reference materials developed by National Metrology Institutes; and prestandards protocols and guidance documents issued by various organizations. Challenges to and opportunities for standards development are also discussed in this part.
• Nanotechnology Basics: Chapters 2–6 cover topics that are fundamental to nanotechnology and to the remaining chapters in this book. A comprehensive treatise on the challenges and successes in developing a set of nanotechnology-related terms and their definitions that are acceptable to diverse stakeholders is presented in Chapter 2. Major categories of nanoscale materials, including engineered nanomaterials, such as metallic nanoparticles, and nanostructured bulk materials, such as nanoporous catalysts, are discussed in Chapter 3. Categorization based on dimensionality, composition, and properties are presented, along with examples of applications for each category. Chapter 4 covers the synthesis of nanoscale materials by physical, chemical, mechanical, and biological methods. The identification and descriptions of key physicochemical properties of engineered nanomaterials that are important to determine prior to the use and application of a nanomaterial are provided in Chapter 5. Biological properties of engineered nanomaterials are dependent on physicochemical properties, and Chapter 6 elucidates the biological properties of engineered nanomaterials in the context of the physiological and pathological pathways encountered by a nanomaterial when it enters the body of a human or animal.
• Metrology for Engineered Nanomaterials: This part of the book consists of seven chapters, ordered from broad coverage of instrumentation and methods for the characterization of engineered nanomaterials to specific methods and properties. Collectively, these chapters demonstrate the state of the art in metrology for engineered nanomaterials. In Chapter 7, the author provides a perspective on the challenges and issues to consider in characterizing four key physicochemical aspects of engineered nanomaterials – size, shape, surface, and solubility. A comprehensive discourse on the vast array of instruments and methods for characterizing 10 physicochemical properties of engineered nanomaterials typically considered to be of prime importance, consistent with the four physicochemical aspects highlighted in Chapter 7, is presented in Chapter 8. The importance of performing measurements in realistic media cannot be overemphasized, and Chapter 9 is devoted to methods applicable to complex environments such as soil, sediment, and biological matrices. Chapter 10 focuses on dimensional metrology, covering traceability of dimensional measurements at the nanoscale, applicable methods, instrument calibration, and uncertainty estimation. Microscopes are arguably the most commonly used tools to characterize engineered nanomaterials; Chapter 11 provides an in-depth tutorial on the principles of five established microscopy-based techniques for nanoscale measurements, as well as four emerging techniques. In Chapter 10, the author describes tribological measurements, for example, friction and wear, from the microscale to the nanoscale, including three typical testing instruments and international standardization efforts for such measurements. The final chapter in this part of the book, Chapter 13, illustrates stochastic, that is, random element, factors to consider in determining the size of nanoparticles by electron microscopy methods.
• Nanotechnology Standards: In this part of the book, “standards” is taken to include reference materials, consensus-based documentary standards, and prestandardization activities. The eight chapters in this part address ongoing international standardization efforts in nanotechnology. Reference nanomaterials are essential tools to assure accurate and reproducible measurement results from research and development to production. Chapter 14 highlights the intended uses of reference nanomaterials with illustrated examples. The next three chapters, Chapters 15–17, describe the consensus-based standards activities in the three international standards development organizations with dedicated nanotechnology committees: ISO, ASTM International, and IEC. The actions taken to establish a committee and a business plan for European documentary standards in nanotechnology are described in Chapter 18. A new effort to develop standard nomenclature for nanomaterials by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry is described in Chapter 19. The final chapter in this part of the book concerns prestandardization efforts on nanomaterials in VAMAS, a group of national metrology institutes concerned with developing best practices and standards.
• Risk-Related Aspects of Engineered Nanomaterials: There are many existing and future applications of nanomaterials; however, widespread commercialization of products is constrained by concerns about potential risks of nanomaterials to humans and the environment at all life cycle stages. Chapter 21 describes various categorization approaches for nanomaterials and their applicability to risk decision-making by regulatory agencies. Risk is most simply defined as the product of exposure times hazard. Exposure scenarios at each nanomaterial product lifecycle stage, with an emphasis on environmental exposure, are presented in Chapter 22, along with examples of environmental releases of nanomaterials from four common types of products. Chapter 23 on nanotoxicology presents an overview of characterization approaches and regulations and describes a new approach combining in vitro, in vivo, and in silico methods to assess nanotoxicology. This part of the book is culminated by Chapter 24, a comprehensive discourse on minimizing risk of nanomaterials that provides strategies to support and frameworks for risk assessment and nanomaterial risk management practices to protect workers, consumers, the public, and the environment.
• Nanotechnology-Based Products, Applications, and Industry: The final part of this book concerns the commercialization of nanotechnology. Chapter 25 provides extensive descriptions of the categories of consumer and industrial nanoenabled products used today, and the manufacturing methods for six major types of such products. This chapter also provides detailed case studies on applications for several of these major types of products. Chapter 26 describes applications of the most commonly used nanomaterials and issues concerning the commercialization of nanotechnology, including sources of innovation and barriers resulting from uncertainties in nanomaterial properties, regulation, and consumer perspectives. Ethical issues concerning the industrial production of nanomaterials are discussed in Chapter 27 wherein the authors provide a strategy for addressing these issues. The remaining four chapters in this part of the book cover different application areas: energy (Chapter 28), food and food-related industries (Chapter 29), magnetics (Chapter 30), and textiles (Chapter 31).

Collectively, the 31 Chapters in this book encompass a broad range of topics related to metrology and standardization of nanomaterials that are essential to advance nanotechnology innovation and commercialization.

NIST Materials Measurement Laboratory Elisabeth Mansfield

Boulder, CO, USA Debra L. Kaiser

July 2016