Cover
Title Page
About the Author
Preface
Acknowledgments
1. Acknowledgments for the Second Edition
Part I: General
1. 1 Analytical Considerations
  1. Chemical Analysis
  2. Residue Analysis
  3. Instrumental Chemical Analysis
  4. Microbiological Analysis
  5. Important Agencies
  6. References
2. 2 Flavors
  1. Sources of Natural Flavors
  2. Perceptions of Flavor
3. 3 Spices
  1. Spice Oils and Oleoresins
  2. Reference
4. 4 Essential Oils
  1. References
5. 5 Food Colors
  1. Mechanism of Color Perception
  2. Food Colors
  3. Measurement of Color
6. 6 Preparation of Plant Material for Extraction
  1. Drying
  2. Size Reduction
  3. References
7. 7 Methods of Extraction of Essential Oils
  1. Size Reduction
  2. Steam Distillation
  3. Water Distillation
  4. Hydro‐diffusion
  5. Other Methods
8. 8 Solvent Extraction
  1. Reference
9. 9 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
  1. Advantages
  2. Disadvantages
10. 10 Homogenization of Extracts
  1. Diluents
  2. Emulsifiers
  3. Mechanical Homogenizers
11. 11 Suspension in Solids
  1. Plating
  2. Microencapsulation by Spray Drying
  3. Spray Drying
  4. Agglomeration
12. 12 Deterioration during Storage and Processing
  1. Autoxidation
  2. References
Part II: Individual Flavors and Colorants
1. 13 Ajwain (Bishop’s Weed)
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. References
2. 14 Allspice (Pimenta)
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Oleoresin
  6. Uses
  7. Allspice Leaf Oil
  8. Identification Numbers
  9. References
3. 15 Aniseed
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. Reference
4. 16 Anka Red Fungus
  1. Introduction
  2. Microbial Material
  3. Extractive
  4. Uses
  5. References
5. 17 Annatto
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Extraction
  5. Methods of Testing
  6. Uses
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. References
6. 18 Asafoetida
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Extractives
  4. Uses
  5. Analytical Method
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
7. 19 Basil
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Oleoresin
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
8. 20 Bay Leaf (Laurel)
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Oleoresin
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
9. 21 Beet Root
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Extractives
  5. Uses
  6. Analytical Method
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. References
10. 22 Bergamot Mint
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
11. 23 Black Cumin
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
12. 24 Black Pepper
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. White and Green Pepper
  5. Essential Oil
  6. Oleoresin
  7. Method of Testing
  8. Uses
  9. Identification Numbers
  10. References
13. 25 Capsicum
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Oleoresin
  5. Analytical Methods
  6. Uses
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. References
14. 26 Caramel
  1. Introduction
  2. Production Aspects
  3. Classification
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
15. 27 Caraway
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
16. 28 Cardamom
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Oleoresin
  6. Uses
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. References
17. 29 Carob Pod
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Extractives
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
18. 30 Carrot
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Extractives
  5. Carrot Seed Oil
  6. Uses
  7. Analytical Method
  8. Identification Numbers
  9. References
19. 31 Cassia
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Oleoresin
  6. Uses
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. References
20. 32 Celery Seed
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Oleoresin
  6. Uses
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. References
21. 33 Chicory
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Extractives
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
22. 34 Cinnamon
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
23. 35 Cinnamon Leaf
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
24. 36 Clove
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Oleoresin
  6. Uses
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. References
25. 37 Clove Leaf
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Uses
  4. Identification Numbers
  5. Reference
26. 38 Coca Leaf
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Extractives
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
27. 39 Cochineal
  1. Introduction
  2. Living Material
  3. Extractives
  4. General Aspects
  5. Uses
  6. Analytical Method
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. References
28. 40 Cocoa
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Processing
  4. Extractives
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
29. 41 Coffee
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Processing
  4. Chemistry
  5. Extractives
  6. Uses
  7. Analytical Method
  8. Identification Numbers
  9. References
30. 42 Colored Vegetables
  1. Introduction
  2. Black Carrot
  3. Red Cabbage
  4. Red Radish (Button Red Radish)
  5. Extractives
  6. Uses
  7. Analytical Methods
  8. Identification Numbers
  9. References
31. 43 Coriander
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Oleoresin
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
32. 44 Coriander Leaf
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Oleoresin
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
33. 45 Cumin
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Oleoresin
  6. Uses
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. References
34. 46 Curry Leaf
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oils
  4. Uses
  5. References
35. 47 Date
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Extractives
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
36. 48 Davana
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
37. 49 Dill
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
38. 50 Fennel
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Oleoresin
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
39. 51 Fenugreek
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Oleoresin
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
40. 52 Galangal: Greater
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
41. 53 Galangal: Kaempferia
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. References
42. 54 Galangal: Lesser
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. References
43. 55 Garcinia Fruit
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Extract
  5. Mechanism of Action
  6. Uses
  7. References
44. 56 Garlic
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Oleoresin
  6. Uses
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. References
45. 57 Ginger
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Oleoresin
  6. Analytical Methods
  7. Uses
  8. Identification Numbers
  9. References
46. 58 Grape
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Extractives
  5. Uses
  6. Analytical Method
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. References
47. 59 Grapefruit
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
48. 60 Green Leaves
  1. Introduction
  2. Spinach
  3. Alfalfa
  4. Mulberry
  5. Napier Grass
  6. Chlorophyll: Chemistry
  7. Extractives
  8. Chlorophyllin at Higher Concentration
  9. Uses
  10. Analytical Method
  11. Identification Numbers
  12. References
49. 61 Hops
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Varieties
  4. Bitterness and Aroma
  5. Essential Oil
  6. Extract
  7. Uses
  8. Identification Numbers
  9. References
50. 62 Hyssop
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
51. 63 Japanese Mint
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Materials
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
52. 64 Juniper Berry
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Oleoresin
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
53. 65 Kokam
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Extract
  4. Uses
  5. References
54. 66 Kola Nut
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Extractives
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. Reference
55. 67 Large Cardamom
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Oleoresin
  5. Uses
  6. References
56. 68 Lemon
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
57. 69 Lemongrass
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Oleoresin
  6. Uses
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. Reference
58. 70 Licorice
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Extraction
  5. Analytical Method
  6. Uses
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. References
59. 71 Lime
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
60. 72 Long Pepper
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Oleoresin
  5. Uses
  6. References
61. 73 Lovage
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
62. 74 Mace
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Oleoresin
  6. Uses
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. References
63. 75 Mandarin
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
64. 76 Marigold
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Preparation of Flowers for Extraction
  4. Chemistry
  5. Extraction
  6. Uses
  7. Analytical Method
  8. Identification Numbers
  9. References
65. 77 Marjoram
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Oleoresin
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
66. 78 Mustard
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Oleoresin
  6. Uses
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. References
67. 79 Nutmeg
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Oleoresin
  6. Uses
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. References
68. 80 Onion
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Oleoresin
  6. Uses
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. References
69. 81 Orange
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
70. 82 Oregano
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Oleoresin
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
71. 83 Paprika
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Units of Color
  5. Oleoresin
  6. Analytical Method
  7. Uses
  8. Identification Numbers
  9. References
72. 84 Parsley
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Oleoresin
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
73. 85 Peppermint
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
74. 86 Red Sandalwood
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Extractives
  5. Uses
  6. Analytical Method
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. References
75. 87 Rosemary
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Oleoresin
  6. Uses
  7. Analytical Method
  8. Identification Numbers
  9. References
76. 88 Saffron
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Extractives
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
77. 89 Sage
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Oleoresin
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
78. 90 Savory (Sweet Summer)
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
79. 91 Spearmint
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
80. 92 Star Anise
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
81. 93 Stevia
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Materials
  3. Chemistry
  4. Extraction
  5. Regulatory Aspects
  6. Analytical Methods
  7. Uses
  8. Identification Numbers
  9. References
82. 94 Sweet Flag (Calamus)
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
83. 95 Tamarind
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Extract
  4. Seeds/Kernel
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. Reference
84. 96 Tarragon
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Uses
  5. Identification Numbers
  6. References
85. 97 Tea
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Extractives
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
86. 98 Thyme
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Essential Oil
  4. Oleoresins
  5. Uses
  6. Identification Numbers
  7. References
87. 99 Tomato
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Extractives
  5. Analytical Method
  6. Uses
  7. Identification Numbers
  8. References
88. 100 Turmeric
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Chemistry
  4. Essential Oil
  5. Oleoresin
  6. Curcumin
  7. Methods of Testing
  8. Uses
  9. Identification Numbers
  10. References
89. 101 Vanilla
  1. Introduction
  2. Plant Material
  3. Harvesting and Curing
  4. Chemistry
  5. Extraction
  6. Analytical Methods
  7. Uses
  8. Identification Numbers
  9. References
Part III: Future Needs
1. 102 Opportunities with Natural Flavors
  1. Allied Spices
  2. Masticatory Products
  3. Others
  4. References
2. 103 Opportunities with Natural Colorants
  1. Anthocyanin‐Based Colors
  2. Seminatural Colors
  3. Wood‐Based Colors
  4. Other Colors
  5. References
Advertisements
Index of Systematic Biological Names
Subject Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 04
1. Table 4.1. Quality marker constituents of major spice oils
2. Table 4.2. Distribution of high boiler marker compounds in the first and second fractions during fractional steam distillation
Chapter 05
1. Table 5.1. Synthetic food colors allowed in the United States
Chapter 08
1. Table 8.1. Limits of residual solvent allowed in oleoresins in different countries
2. Table 8.2. Residual solvent in final food
Chapter 100
1. Table 100.1. Yields of volatile oil and curcumin
2. Table 100.2. Analysis^{^a} of true turmeric oil and oil recovered from the “oil part”
3. Table 100.3. Curcumin derivatives obtained on hydrogenation
Chapter 13
1. Table 13.1. Analysis of ajwain oil
Chapter 14
1. Table 14.1. Analysis of pimenta from different sources
2. Table 14.2. GC analysis of Jamaican pimenta oil (area percentage)
Chapter 17
1. Table 17.1. Properties of coloring compounds of annatto
Chapter 24
1. Table 24.1. Changes in chemical composition of pepper at different stages of maturity
Chapter 25
1. Table 25.1. Distribution of active constituents in different parts of dried chili
2. Table 25.2. Chili oleoresin: color and pungency levels for selected varieties in India
Chapter 28
1. Table 28.1. Composition of total cardamom oil (GC area percentage)
Chapter 35
1. Table 35.1. Analysis of cinnamon leaf oils from Sri Lanka and India
Chapter 36
1. Table 36.1. Major components of clove bud oil (Sri Lankan)
Chapter 37
1. Table 37.1. GC analysis of clove leaf oil
Chapter 42
1. Table 42.1. Structure and absorption characteristics of anthocyanidins
Chapter 48
1. Table 48.1. Chemical composition of davana oil
Chapter 52
1. Table 52.1. Analysis of java galangal oil
Chapter 53
1. Table 53.1. Constituents of galangal oil
Chapter 57
1. Table 57.1. GC analysis^{^a} of cochin ginger oil (Rajakumari region)
Chapter 74
1. Table 74.1. Composition of mace oil from Indonesia and Sri Lanka
Chapter 76
1. Table 76.1. Moisture and weight reduction during preparation of dry meal from fresh marigold flowers
Chapter 79
1. Table 79.1. Composition of nutmeg oil from three origins
Chapter 83
1. Table 83.1. Capsaicin and color content of paprikas from different regions
2. Table 83.2. Carotenoid pigments in paprika
3. Table 83.3. Analysis of paprika raw materials for carotenes and capsanthins
Chapter 98
1. Table 98.1. Analysis of thyme oil from different regions

List of Illustrations

Chapter 07
1. Figure 7.1. Receiver for lighter‐than‐water oil with no heavy fraction.
2. Figure 7.2. Receiver for heavier‐than‐water oil with a minute amount of lighter fraction.
Chapter 100
1. Figure 100.1. (a) Whole growing turmeric plant. (b) Uprooted turmeric. (c) Foreground, powder; left, dried turmeric; right, fresh fingers of turmeric.
2. Figure 100.2. ar‐Turmerone.
3. Figure 100.3. Curcumin. (a) Enol form. (b) Keto form.
Chapter 101
1. Figure 101.1. (a) Uncured vanilla beans. (b) Cured beans.
2. Figure 101.2. Vanillin.
Chapter 102
1. Figure 102.1. Shallots.
Chapter 14
1. Figure 14.1. Dried allspice (pimenta).
Chapter 15
1. Figure 15.1. Anethole.
Chapter 17
1. Figure 17.1. (a) Unopened annatto pods. (b) Opened pods with seeds inside.
2. Figure 17.2. Bixin.
3. Figure 17.3. nor‐Bixin.
Chapter 21
1. Figure 21.1. Betanin.
Chapter 24
1. Figure 24.1. (a) Pepper vine with pepper berries as spikes. (b) White pepper. (c) Dried black pepper.
2. Figure 24.2. Piperine.
3. Figure 24.3. Cross‐section of pepper.
Chapter 25
1. Figure 25.1. (a) Harvesting of ripe chilis. (b) Dried Byadege chili. (c) Fresh green chili.
2. Figure 25.2. Section of chili and distribution of constituents.
3. Figure 25.3. Capsaicin.
Chapter 27
1. Figure 27.1. Carvone.
Chapter 28
1. Figure 28.1. (a) Cardamom plant with capsules growing from the base. (b) Dried green capsules.
2. Figure 28.2. 1,8‐Cineole.
Chapter 31
1. Figure 31.1. Cassia.
2. Figure 31.2. Cinnamaldehyde.
Chapter 32
1. Figure 32.1. Dried celery seeds.
2. Figure 32.2. Selinenes of celery seed oil. (a) α‐Selinene. (b) β‐Selinene.
3. Figure 32.3. Sedanolide.
Chapter 34
1. Figure 34.1. Cinnamon quills.
Chapter 36
1. Figure 36.1. (a) Cloves on the plant. (b) Dried cloves and clove oil.
2. Figure 36.2. Eugenol.
Chapter 39
1. Figure 39.1. Carminic acid.
Chapter 41
1. Figure 41.1. Coffee fruits on the tree.
2. Figure 41.2. Caffeine.
Chapter 43
1. Figure 43.1. (a) Coriander on the plant. (b) Dried coriander seeds.
Chapter 45
1. Figure 45.1. Cuminaldehyde.
Chapter 46
1. Figure 46.1. Curry leaf.
Chapter 48
1. Figure 48.1. (+) Davanone.
Chapter 49
1. Figure 49.1. (a) Dill plant. (b) Dill seed.
2. Figure 49.2. Dillapiole.
Chapter 50
1. Figure 50.1. Fennel seeds.
Chapter 52
1. Figure 52.1. Cut pieces of greater galanga.
Chapter 55
1. Figure 55.1. (a) Garcinia fruit. (b) Dried pulp.
2. Figure 55.2. Hydroxycitric acid.
Chapter 56
1. Figure 56.1. Garlic.
Chapter 57
1. Figure 57.1. (a) Ginger field. (b) Uprooted rhizome. (c) From bottom left clockwise: peeled dry ginger, oleoresin ginger, two samples of ginger oil, and fresh ginger.
2. Figure 57.2. 6‐Gingerol.
Chapter 58
1. Figure 58.1. Anthocyanidins. Pelargonidin: R₁ = H, R₂ = OH, R₃ = H; cyanidin: R₁ = OH, R₂ = OH, R₃ = H; delphinidin: R₁ = OH, R₂ = OH, R₃ = OH; peonidin: R₁ = OCH₃, R₂ = OH, R₃ = H; malvidin: R₁ = OCH₃, R₂ = OH, R₃ = OCH₃; petunidin: R₁ = OH, R₂ = OH, R₃ = OCH₃.
Chapter 60
1. Figure 60.1. Chlorophyllin.
Chapter 63
1. Figure 63.1. Menthol.
Chapter 64
1. Figure 64.1. Juniper berries.
Chapter 69
1. Figure 69.1. Citrals. (a) Geranial. (b) Neral.
Chapter 72
1. Figure 72.1. Dried spike of long pepper.
Chapter 76
1. Figure 76.1. Marigold flower.
2. Figure 76.2. 9‐cis‐Lutein.
Chapter 78
1. Figure 78.1. (a) Mustard in bloom. (b) Dried yellow mustard.
2. Figure 78.2. Allyl isothiocyanate.
Chapter 79
1. Figure 79.1. (a) Nutmeg fruit on the tree. (b) Opened fruit showing nutmeg covered with mace. (c) Nutmeg with mace over it.
2. Figure 79.2. Myristicine.
Chapter 80
1. Figure 80.1. Onion; cut pieces show the structure.
Chapter 83
1. Figure 83.1. Carotenoid pigments of paprika.
Chapter 86
1. Figure 86.1. Santalin: santalin A, R = OH; santalin B, R = OMe.
Chapter 87
1. Figure 87.1. Carnosic acid.
2. Figure 87.2. Rosmarinic acid.
Chapter 88
1. Figure 88.1. Saffron.
2. Figure 88.2. α‐Crocin.
3. Figure 88.3. Picrocrocin.
Chapter 92
1. Figure 92.1. Star anise.
Chapter 93
1. Figure 93.1. Steviol.
Chapter 95
1. Figure 95.1. Tamarind fruits on the tree.
Chapter 99
1. Figure 99.1. Lycopene.

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Anti‐Ageing Nutrients: Evidence‐Based Prevention of Age‐Associated Diseases (Deliminda Neves)
Bioactive Compounds from Marine Foods: Plant and Animal Sources (Blanca Hernández‐Ledesma and Miguel Herrero)
Bioactive Proteins and Peptides as Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals (Yoshinori Mine, Eunice Li‐Chan, and Bo Jiang)
Biofilms in the Food Environment (Hans P. Blaschek, Hua H. Wang, and Meredith E. Agle)
Calorimetry in Food Processing: Analysis and Design of Food Systems (Gönül Kaletunç)
Coffee: Emerging Health Effects and Disease Prevention (YiFang Chu)
Food Carbohydrate Chemistry (Ronald E. Wrolstad)
Food Carotenoids: Chemistry, Biology and Technology (Delia B. Rodriguez‐Amaya)
Food Industry Design, Technology & Innovation (Helmut Traitler, Birgit Coleman, and Karen Hofmann)
Food Ingredients for the Global Market (Yao‐Wen Huang and Claire L. Kruger)
Food Irradiation Research and Technology, second edition (Christoper H. Sommers and Xuetong Fan)
Foodborne Pathogens in the Food Processing Environment: Sources, Detection and Control (Sadhana Ravishankar, Vijay K. Juneja, and Divya Jaroni)
Food Oligosaccharides: Production, Analysis and Bioactivity (F. Javier Moreno and Maria Luz Sanz)
Food Texture Design and Optimization (Yadunandan Dar and Joseph Light)
High Pressure Processing of Foods (Christopher J. Doona and Florence E. Feeherry)
Hydrocolloids in Food Processing (Thomas R. Laaman)
Improving Import Food Safety (Wayne C. Ellefson, Lorna Zach, and Darryl Sullivan)
Innovative Food Processing Technologies: Advances in Multiphysics Simulation (Kai Knoerzer, Pablo Juliano, Peter Roupas, and Cornelis Versteeg)
Mathematical and Statistical Methods in Food Science and Technology (Daniel Granato and Gastón Ares)
Membrane Processes for Dairy Ingredient Separation (Kang Hu and James Dickson)
Microbial Safety of Fresh Produce (Xuetong Fan, Brendan A. Niemira, Christopher J. Doona, Florence E. Feeherry, and Robert B. Gravani)
Microbiology and Technology of Fermented Foods (Robert W. Hutkins)
Multiphysics Simulation of Emerging Food Processing Technologies (Kai Knoerzer, Pablo Juliano, Peter Roupas, and Cornelis Versteeg)
Multivariate and Probabilistic Analyses of Sensory Science Problems (Jean‐François Meullenet, Rui Xiong, and Christopher J. Findlay)
Nanoscience and Nanotechnology in Food Systems (Hongda Chen)
Natural Food Flavors and Colorants, second edition (Mathew Attokaran)
Nondestructive Testing of Food Quality (Joseph Irudayaraj and Christoph Reh)
Nondigestible Carbohydrates and Digestive Health (Teresa M. Paeschke and William R. Aimutis)
Nonthermal Processing Technologies for Food (Howard Q. Zhang, Gustavo V. Barbosa‐Cánovas, V.M. Balasubramaniam, C. Patrick Dunne, Daniel F. Farkas, and James T.C. Yuan)
Nutraceuticals, Glycemic Health and Type 2 Diabetes (Vijai K. Pasupuleti and James W. Anderson)
Organic Meat Production and Processing (Steven C. Ricke, Ellen J. Van Loo, Michael G. Johnson, and Corliss A. O’Bryan)
Packaging for Nonthermal Processing of Food (Jung H. Han)
Practical Ethics for the Food Professional: Ethics in Research, Education and the Workplace (J. Peter Clark and Christopher Ritson)
Preharvest and Postharvest Food Safety: Contemporary Issues and Future Directions (Ross C. Beier, Suresh D. Pillai, and Timothy D. Phillips, Editors; Richard L. Ziprin, Associate Editor)
Processing and Nutrition of Fats and Oils (Ernesto M. Hernandez and Afaf Kamal‐Eldin)
Processing Organic Foods for the Global Market (Gwendolyn V. Wyard, Anne Plotto, Jessica Walden, and Kathryn Schuett)
Regulation of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: A Global Perspective (Clare M. Hasler)
Resistant Starch: Sources, Applications and Health Benefits (Yong‐Cheng Shi and Clodualdo Maningat)
Sensory and Consumer Research in Food Product Design and Development (Howard R. Moskowitz, Jacqueline H. Beckley, and Anna V.A. Resurreccion)
Spray Drying Techniques for Food Ingredient Encapsulation (C. Anandharamakrishnan and Padma S. Ishwarya)
Sustainability in the Food Industry (Cheryl J. Baldwin)
Thermal Processing of Foods: Control and Automation (K.P. Sandeep)
Trait ‐ Modified Oils in Foods (Frank T. Orthoefer and Gary R. List)
Water Activity in Foods: Fundamentals and Applications (Gustavo V. Barbosa‐Cánovas, Anthony J. Fontana Jr., Shelly J. Schmidt, and Theodore P. Labuza)
Whey Processing, Functionality and Health Benefits (Charles I. Onwulata and Peter J. Huth)

This edition first published 2017
© 2017 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd and the Institute of Food Technologists,

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Attokaran, Mathew, author.
Title: Natural food flavors and colorants / Mathew Attokaran.
Description: 2nd edition. | Hoboken : Wiley‐Blackwell, 2017. | Series: Institute of food technologists series | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016043324 (print) | LCCN 2016043737 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119114765 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119114772 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119114789 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Flavoring essences. | Coloring matter in food. | Natural foods. | BISAC: TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING / Food Science.
Classification: LCC TP418 .A88 2017 (print) | LCC TP418 (ebook) | DDC 664/.5–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016043324

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Cover image: Natalia Klenova/gettyimages

Preface

Ever since man began adding crushed roots, fruits, and leaves to food with a view to improving its organoleptic appeal, the search for more and more diverse flavors has continued. In addition, consumers want their food to be pleasing to the eye. It was soon evident that some plant materials gave a good color to the food. One of the distinctive features of humans that differentiates us from other animals is our innovative approach to improving the quality of our food. This enabled the production of such plant materials into ground, crushed, distilled, and extracted forms so as to obtain the flavor and color in convenient and effective forms, in order to be used as excellent natural additives.

With the development of modern chemistry, synthetic chemical molecules capable of producing delicious flavors and attractive colors started to emerge. But as man became more and more conscious of his own physiology and the interference of external molecules, leading to allergies, toxicity, and carcinogenicity, a decisive step back to natural substances was taken. After all, the human body is a biological engine and compatibility with bio‐derived materials is only natural.

A survey (Food Technology, IFT, 2010, April) of the top ten food trends reported that blending foods and drinks with naturally rich nutrients is the second most popular trend, and avoidance of chemical additives and artificial colors is the fifth most important trend that Americans now seek.

It was Ernest Guenther who pioneered the production of a six‐volume treatise, The Essential Oils, which covers the largest group of natural aroma and flavor materials used in food. Even after 60 years, the volumes are widely consulted by food scientists and technologists. Brian M. Lawrence continued the great tradition of reviews in the form of “Progress in Essential Oils,” which appears in the journal Perfumer and Flavorist. While the aroma‐contributing natural flavors of essential oils are well treated, the same cannot be said with regards to nonvolatile natural flavors.

There are many books on spices, but only a few deal with the chemical constituents that are referred to in this book. For spices and other materials, the compilation by Albert Y. Leung and Steven Foster, Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients, is indeed a very valuable one. There are some good books and reviews on food colors. Nevertheless, the author believes that there is room for a book that includes all the available natural food flavors and colorants with adequate coverage of plant products, tips on extraction procedures, the chemistry of active principles, guidance on analytical methods, and links to regulatory bodies. This book is designed to assist people associated with food science, technology, and industry to realize the newfound dream of consumers for a return to natural substances that can be added to food to improve its appeal.

Almost all the products dealt with in this book may indeed be familiar to ordinary people. However, their scientific significance, methods of production, and recognition in food laws are matters that laypeople will not be fully conversant with and will be a great help to students, researchers, and those in the industry.

The book is divided into three parts. Part I deals with matters connected with analysis, general properties, and techniques. Part II describes the various natural flavors and colorants that are available. Part III covers the future prospects that can be pursued by research workers and manufacturers.

Mathew Attokaran

Second Edition

Acknowledgments for the Second Edition

Introduction