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Cover
Title Page
List of contributors
PART I: Introductory section
1. CHAPTER 1: Introduction to the microbial ecology of foods
  1. 1.1 Introduction
  2. 1.2 Role of food characteristics and environment on microbial fate
  3. 1.3 Understanding microbial growth, death, persistence, competition, antagonism and survival in food
  4. 1.4 Methods to study the microbial ecology of foods
  5. 1.5 Perspectives on applying food ecosystem modeling
  6. References
2. CHAPTER 2: Predictive microbiology: mathematics towards understanding the fate of food-borne microorganisms in food processing
  1. 2.1 Introduction
  2. 2.2 Probability and kinetic models for food processing and HACCP
  3. 2.3 Thermal inactivation
  4. 2.4 Non-thermal inactivation and modeling stress-adaptation strategies
  5. 2.5 Fermentation: a dynamic environment for microbial growth and pathogen inactivation
  6. 2.6 Colonial versus planktonic type of growth: modes of microbial existence on surfaces and in liquid, semi-liquid, and solid foods
  7. 2.7 Modeling microbial transfer between processing equipment and foods
  8. 2.8 Alternative multivariate approaches: the use of bioinformatics for characterizing spoilage and product classification
  9. References
3. CHAPTER 3: Principles of unit operations in food processing
  1. 3.1 Introduction
  2. 3.2 Principles of transport phenomena
  3. 3.3 Principles and unit operations of momentum transfer
  4. 3.4 Principles and unit operations of heat transfer
  5. 3.5 Principles and unit operations of mass transfer
  6. 3.6 Conclusions
  7. References
PART II: Impact of unit operations on microorganisms of relevance in foods
1. CHAPTER 4: Impact of materials handling at pre- and post-harvest operations on the microbial ecology of foods of vegetable origin
  1. 4.1 Introduction
  2. 4.2 The production environment
  3. 4.3 Soil
  4. 4.4 Fertilizers derived from animal wastes
  5. 4.5 Irrigation
  6. 4.6 Harvesting and handling
  7. 4.7 Postharvest processing
  8. 4.8 Packaging, storage, and transportation
  9. 4.9 Conclusions
  10. References
2. CHAPTER 5: Impact of heating operations on the microbial ecology of foods
  1. 5.1 Background and basic information of heating operations
  2. 5.2 Quantitative aspects and how unit operations impact on food-borne microorganisms
  3. 5.3 Application of F-value concept
  4. 5.4 Dealing with non-linearity
  5. 5.5 Development of new concepts to assess heat processes
  6. 5.6 Microbial safety and stability of heating operations: challenges and perspectives
  7. References
3. CHAPTER 6: Impact of refrigeration operations on the microbial ecology of foods
  1. 6.1 Introduction
  2. 6.2 Refrigeration as a unit operation
  3. 6.3 Dynamic effect of chilling on growth of C. perfringens during cooling
  4. References
4. CHAPTER 7: Impact of dehydration and drying operations on the microbial ecology of foods
  1. 7.1 Introduction
  2. 7.2 Modeling the drying process in food
  3. 7.3 Modeling microbial survival/inactivation in drying/dehydration processes
  4. 7.4 Example of application/development of predictive microbiology models for describing microbial death during drying processes
  5. 7.5 Conclusions
  6. References
5. CHAPTER 8: Impact of irradiation on the microbial ecology of foods
  1. 8.1 Introduction
  2. 8.2 Ionizing radiation
  3. 8.3 Non-ionizing radiation
  4. References
6. CHAPTER 9: Impact of high-pressure processing on the microbial ecology of foods
  1. 9.1 Introduction
  2. 9.2 Processing operation
  3. 9.3 Bacteria and enzyme inactivation
  4. 9.4 Effect of high pressure on fruit and vegetable products
  5. 9.5 Effect of HHP on meat and other food products
  6. 9.6 Effect of added antimicrobial on pathogen inactivation by high-pressure processing (hurdle approach)
  7. 9.7 High-pressure carbon dioxide (HPCD) disinfection
  8. 9.8 Effect of HHP on bacteria, virus, insects, and other organisms
  9. 9.9 Effect of HHP on quality: color, flavor, texture, sugar, totally soluble, and insolubles
  10. 9.10 Advantages and disadvantages of using HHP
  11. 9.11 Applications and conclusions
  12. References
7. CHAPTER 10: Impact of Vacuum packaging, modified and controlled atmosphere on the microbial ecology of foods
  1. 10.1 Introduction
  2. 10.2 Vacuum packaging
  3. 10.3 Controlled atmosphere
  4. 10.4 Modified atmosphere packaging
  5. References
8. CHAPTER 11: Impact of fermentation on the microbial ecology of foods
  1. 11.1 Introduction
  2. 11.2 Fermentations: microbial ecology and activity
  3. 11.3 Factors affecting food-borne pathogen inactivation during fermentation
  4. 11.4 Challenge tests
  5. 11.5 Predictive modeling
  6. 11.6 Conclusions
  7. References
9. CHAPTER 12: Impact of forming and mixing operations on the microbial ecology of foods: focus on pathogenic microorganisms
  1. 12.1 Forming
  2. 12.2 Homogenizing
  3. 12.3 Mixing
  4. References
10. CHAPTER 13: Impact of specific unit operations on food-borne microorganisms: curing, salting, extrusion, puffing, encapsulation, absorption, extraction, distillation, and crystallization
  1. 13.1 Introductory remarks
  2. 13.2 Burden of food-borne illnesses
  3. 13.3 Food safety and food quality
  4. 13.4 Prevention and control through processing
  5. 13.5 Conclusions and prospects for the future
  6. References
11. CHAPTER 14: Impact of food unit operations on virus loads in foods
  1. 14.1 Introduction
  2. 14.2 The use of surrogate viruses to assess inactivation processes
  3. 14.3 Virus contamination in food processing
  4. 14.4 Survival of virus in the food processing chain
  5. 14.5 Effect of food preservation techniques on the virus load
  6. 14.6 Conclusion and perspectives
  7. References
12. CHAPTER 15: Impact of food unit operations on parasites in foods: focus on selected parasites within the fresh produce industry
  1. 15.1 Background and introduction
  2. 15.2 Detection of selected parasites in fresh produce
  3. 15.3 Effects of fresh produce treatments on selected parasites
  4. 15.4 Conclusion
  5. References
13. CHAPTER 16: Impact of food unit operations on probiotic microorganisms
  1. 16.1 Introduction
  2. 16.2 Probiotic products
  3. 16.3 probiotics and environmental stress: cellular mechanisms and resistance
  4. 16.4 Enhancing stress resistance of probiotics
  5. 16.5 Conclusion
  6. References
PART III: Microbial ecology of food products
1. CHAPTER 17: Microbial ecology of fresh vegetables
  1. 17.1 Introduction
  2. 17.2 Prevalence and diversity of microbial communities on fresh vegetables (post-harvest)
  3. 17.3 Post-harvest persistence, colonization, and survival on fresh vegetables
  4. 17.4 Routes of contamination during post-harvest handling of fresh and fresh-cut vegetables
  5. 17.5 Microbial adaptation on produce commodity
  6. 17.6 Effective post-harvest intervention technologies
  7. References
2. CHAPTER 18: Microbial ecology of fruits and fruit-based products
  1. 18.1 Introduction
  2. 18.2 Fresh whole fruits
  3. 18.3 Minimally processed fruits
  4. 18.4 Processed fruits
  5. Acknowledgments
  6. References
3. CHAPTER 19: Microbial ecology of cereal and cereal-based foods
  1. 19.1 Introduction
  2. 19.2 Sourdough
  3. 19.3 Ethnic fermented foods
  4. 19.4 Spoilage of cereals and cereal products
  5. References
4. CHAPTER 20: Microbial ecology of nuts, seeds, and sprouts
  1. 20.1 Introduction
  2. 20.2 Definition and classification of nuts, seeds, and sprouts
  3. 20.3 Microbial ecology of nuts and seeds
  4. 20.4 Microbial ecology of sprouts and their corresponding seeds
  5. 20.5 Implications and perspectives
  6. References
5. CHAPTER 21: Microbial ecology of eggs: a focus on Salmonella and microbial contamination in post-harvest table shell egg production
  1. 21.1 Introduction
  2. 21.2 Historical and current trends in commercial egg production
  3. 21.3 Egg production management on the farm and incidence of Salmonella
  4. 21.4 Egg processing and microbial contamination: general aspects
  5. 21.5 Microbial contamination during egg collection at the farm to in-line processing
  6. 21.6 Microbial contamination during transportation to off-line egg processing facilities
  7. 21.7 Microbial contamination during egg processing
  8. 21.8 Egg washwater and sanitation
  9. 21.9 Egg retail and microbial contamination
  10. 21.10 Conclusions and future directions
  11. Acknowledgment
  12. References
6. CHAPTER 22: Microbial ecology of beef carcasses and beef products
  1. 22.1 Introduction
  2. 22.2 Carcass production process
  3. 22.3 Carcass breaking
  4. References
7. CHAPTER 23: Microbial ecology of pork meat and pork products
  1. 23.1 Introduction
  2. 23.2 Pork meat as a substrate for microbial growth: chemical and physical characteristics
  3. 23.3 Microbial ecology of fresh pork meat: sources of contamination and microbial groups
  4. 23.4 Microbial ecology of chilled pork meat
  5. 23.5 Microbial ecology of vacuum/modified atmosphere packaged pork meat
  6. 23.6 Microbial ecology of marinated pork meat
  7. 23.7 Microbial ecology of cured and fermented/ripened pork meats
  8. 23.8 Microbial ecology of high-pressure preserved pork meat
  9. References
8. CHAPTER 24: Microbial ecology of poultry and poultry products
  1. 24.1 Introduction
  2. 24.2 Microbial hazard identification and prioritization
  3. 24.3 Microbial aspects of poultry processing at abattoirs
  4. 24.4 Microbial aspects of derived poultry meat products
  5. References
9. CHAPTER 25: Microbial ecology of seafoods: a special emphasis on the spoilage microbiota of North Sea seafood
  1. 25.1 Introduction
  2. 25.2 Total viable counts (TVC s) and microorganisms identified depends on the method used
  3. 25.3 The initial microbiota of marine fish
  4. 25.4 Raw seafood
  5. 25.5 Processing – lightly preserved seafood
  6. 25.6 A case study: brown shrimp (Crangon crangon) (adapted from Broekaert et al., 2013)
  7. References
10. CHAPTER 26: Microbial ecology of mayonnaise, margarine, and sauces
  1. 26.1 Introduction
  2. 26.2 Mayonnaise
  3. 26.3 Margarine
  4. 26.4 Sauces and salad dressings
  5. 26.5 Conclusion
  6. References
11. CHAPTER 27: Microbial ecology of confectionary products, honey, sugar, and syrups
  1. 27.1 Introduction
  2. 27.2 Cocoa and chocolate
  3. 27.3 Nuts and peanut butter
  4. 27.4 Honey
  5. 27.5 Sugar
  6. 27.6 Syrups
  7. 27.7 Conclusion
  8. References
12. CHAPTER 28: Microbial ecology of wine
  1. 28.1 Introduction
  2. 28.2 Biodiversity of grape microorganisms
  3. 28.3 Microorganism ecology in winemaking
  4. 28.4 Microorganism ecology during aging
  5. 28.5 Microbial identification by classical methods
  6. 28.6 Microbial identification by molecular methods
  7. References
13. CHAPTER 29: Microbial diversity and ecology of bottled water
  1. 29.1 Definitions of bottled water
  2. 29.2 Characteristics of mineral and spring water
  3. 29.3 Useful methods to study bottled water microbiota
  4. 29.4 Microbiological diversity
  5. 29.5 Bottling effect
  6. 29.6 Microbiological contamination
  7. 29.7 A new perspective on microbiological quality and safety
  8. Acknowledgments
  9. References
PART IV: Closing section
1. CHAPTER 30: Microbial risk assessment: integrating and quantifying the impacts of food processing operations on food safety
  1. 30.1 Introduction
  2. 30.2 Basic processes encountered during food processing operations
  3. 30.3 Risk-based objectives for each processing operation
  4. 30.4 Conclusion
  5. References
2. CHAPTER 31: Quorum sensing and microbial ecology of foods
  1. 31.1 Introduction
  2. 31.2 Quorum sensing and microbial behavior
  3. 31.3 Quorum sensing and food ecology
  4. 31.4 Quorum quenching
  5. References
3. CHAPTER 32: Heterogeneity in Bacillus subtilis spore germination and outgrowth: an area of key challenges for “omics” in food microbiology
  1. 32.1 Bacterial spores in the food industry
  2. 32.2 The Bacillus genus
  3. 32.3 Sporulation cycle
  4. 32.4 Endospore structure and its resistance
  5. 32.5 Spore germination and outgrowth
  6. 32.6 Heterogeneity in bacterial (spore) physiology during germination and outgrowth
  7. 32.7 Steps towards single-cell physiology and “omics” measurements
  8. References
4. CHAPTER 33: Role of stress response on microbial ecology of foods and its impact on the fate of food'borne microorganisms
  1. 33.1 Introduction
  2. 33.2 Acquisition of permanent stress tolerance through adaptive mutagenesis
  3. 33.3 Transient adaptive responses to stress: modulation of membrane fluidity as an example
  4. 33.4 Using food components to survive under harsh conditions
  5. 33.5 The balance between self-preservation and nutritional competence (SPANC)
  6. 33.6 Conclusions and future prospects
  7. Acknowledgment
  8. References
Index
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List of Tables

Chapter 01
1. Table 1.1 Psychrophilic, psychrotropic, mesophilic, and thermophilic microorganisms of importance in food.
Chapter 02
1. Table 2.1 Probability models for Cl. botulinum growth from spores and toxigenesis.
2. Table 2.2 Representative growth/no growth models. When inoculation levels are not specified, high population densities, e.g., >4.5 log₁₀ cfu/ml were used.
3. Table 2.3 Q₁₀ dependence on E_A and temperature.
Chapter 04
1. Table 4.1 Outbreaks linked to fresh produce from 2005 to 2014.
2. Table 4.2 Prevalence of food-borne pathogens in different water sources.
3. Table 4.3 Survival of E. coli O157 and Salmonella in water from different sources.
Chapter 05
1. Table 5.1 Frequencies available for industrial, scientific, and medical uses (ISM radio bands).
2. Table 5.2 Main extrinsic parameters of thermal processes.
3. Table 5.3 Main intrinsic parameters of thermal processes.
4. Table 5.4 Representative examples of kinetic models to describe microbial inactivation kinetics during thermal processing of food (model) systems.
5. Table 5.5 Examples of comparative studies between conventional heating and other thermal processes applying log-linear inactivation kinetics (MH: microwave heating, CT: conventional thermal process, OH: ohmic heating).
Chapter 06
1. Table 6.1 Kinetic parameters of survival of Salmonella spp. in chicken chow mein at –25.5 °C (Jay et al., 2005; original data source: Gunderson and Rose, 1948).
2. Table 6.2 Minimum growth temperatures of some common psychrotrophs and mesophilles in foods (FDA, 2011; Jay et al., 2005; Hwang and Huang, 2014; Kraft, 1992).
3. Table 6.3 Physical conditions and thermal properties used in development and validation of FEM analysis of heat transfer during cooking of cylindrical beef roasts.
4. Table 6.4 End-point temperatures at the geometric center (GC), half-way between GC and surface (0.5R), and on the surface (R) under different cooling conditions of surface heat transfer coefficients (h).
5. Table 6.5 Kinetic parameters used in simulation of dynamic growth of C. perfringens in cooked beef (Huang, 2015).
Chapter 10
1. Table 10.1 Recommended gas mixtures for retail MAP of main food commodities.
Chapter 11
1. Table 11.1 Limits of growth for the food-borne pathogens associated with the raw materials used in the fermentation processes in relation to product characteristics (pH and a_w).
2. Table 11.2 Final product characteristics in terms of pH and a_w after the fermentation of the raw materials.
3. Table 11.3 Various inactivation models covering different shapes of the inactivation curve.
4. Table 11.4 Statistical indices and kinetic parameters estimated when applying three models of the tool GInaFiT on the experimental inactivation data of L. monocytogenes in Sudjuk fermented sausage.
5. Table 11.5 Quantitative data on the non-thermal inactivation of various food-borne pathogens in various fermented foods.
Chapter 13
1. Table 13.1 Classification of unit operations in the food industry.
2. Table 13.2 Pasteurization characteristics for food products of different pH values.
Chapter 14
1. Table 14.1 Survival of food-borne viruses and surrogates under different conditions.
2. Table 14.2 Some heat inactivation studies on food-borne viruses and surrogates.
3. Table 14.3 Some decontamination studies of food-borne viruses and surrogates by chemical sanitizers.
4. Table 14.4 Some inactivation studies by radiation on food-borne virus surrogates.
5. Table 14.5 Some inactivation studies by HHP on NoV and its surrogates.
Chapter 15
1. Table 15.1 Contamination along the fresh produce chain; examples of contamination sources.
2. Table 15.2 Summary of procedures in analysis of fresh produce for contamination with Cryptosporidium oocysts using the ISO method currently under development; recovery efficiencies of around 15–60% were reported (depending on the analytical lab, study, and matrix) and the theoretical limit of detection is 1 oocyst per sample analyzed (25 g or more depending on the product).
3. Table 15.3 Summary of procedures in the analysis of fresh produce for contamination with Cyclospora (largely adapted from Shields and Ortega, 2012).
4. Table 15.4 Effect of refrigeration on the survival of transmission stages of selected parasites.
5. Table 15.5 Effect of freezing on the survival of transmission stages of selected parasites.
6. Table 15.6 Summary of effects of ionizing irradiation on the survival of transmission stages of selected parasites.
7. Table 15.7 Summary of the effects of non-ionizing irradiation on survival of transmission stages of selected parasites.
8. Table 15.8 Summary of effects of high-pressure processing (HPP) on survival of transmission stages of selected parasites.
Chapter 16
1. Table 16.1 Challenges with probiotics and probiotic products.
2. Table 16.2 Studies identifying genes and/or proteins involved in an acid stress response.
3. Table 16.3 Some genes and proteins up-regulated as a response to heat and cold stress.
4. Table 16.4 Products containing microencapsulated probiotic bacteria.
Chapter 17
1. Table 17.1 Growth kinetics of S. Newport in fresh-cut red ripe tomatoes stored at 22 °C.
2. Table 17.2 Effect of storage temperature before cutting on the growth kinetics of S. Newport inoculated in fresh-cut red ripe tomatoes stored at 22 °C.
3. Table 17.3 Growth of Listeria monocytogenes in artificially contaminated cut celery.
4. Table 17.4 Growth kinetics of S. Newport on blended beefsteak and tomatoes as affected by pH incubated at 22 °C.
5. Table 17.5 Chemical and physical interventions on fresh and fresh-cut vegetables in post-harvest.
Chapter 18
1. Table 18.1 Outbreaks in the United States associated with the consumption of fruits (1998–2012).
2. Table 18.2 Prevalence of pathogenic microorganisms on fresh fruits.
3. Table 18.3 New and emerging technologies studied for fruit decontamination.
Chapter 19
1. Table 19.1 Microbiota of sourdough (from De Vuyst et al., 2014).
2. Table 19.2 Description of two traditional cereal-based products.
3. Table 19.3 Kinds of spoiling phenomena associated with different cereal products (compiled using the data reported by Bullermann and Bianchini, 2009, and Cook and Johnson, 2009).
Chapter 20
1. Table 20.1 Microorganisms in edible nuts.
2. Table 20.2 Prevalence of Salmonella spp. in raw and processed edible nuts.
3. Table 20.3 Prevalence of Salmonella spp. and E. coli in edible seeds.
4. Table 20.4 Bacterial contamination levels in retail sprouts.
5. Table 20.5 Prevalence of bacteria in sprouts.
6. Table 20.6 Bacterial contamination levels in seeds used for the production of sprouts.
7. Table 20.7 Prevalence of bacteria in seed used for the production of sprouts.
Chapter 22
1. Table 22.1 Microbiological profile of beef carcasses at the end of the dressing line.
2. Table 22.2 Microbiological conditions of chilled beef carcass sides.
Chapter 24
1. Table 24.1 Microbial hazards transmissible from poultry to humans via a meat-borne route (compiled from Buncic, 2014; Fredriksson-Ahomaa, 2014; EFSA, 2012a; Bhunia, 2008; FSANZ, 2005; Cox et al., 2005).
2. Table 24.2 Microbial contamination of poultry carcasses at the main processing steps in the abattoir (compiled from Abu-Ruwaida et al., 1994; Altekruse et al., 2009; Berrang et al., 2000; FAO/WHO, 2002, 2009; Whyte et al., 2004).
3. Table 24.3 Antimicrobial efficiency of decontamination treatments of poultry carcasses (adapted from Loretz et al., 2010).
4. Table 24.4 Microbial hazards in raw and ready-to-eat (RTE) poultry meat/products at retail.
5. Table 24.5 Salmonella and Campylobacter in broiler meat at retail in the EU (adapted from EFSA/ECDC, 2014).
6. Table 24.6 PHCs applicable to processing of poultry meat in the EU.
7. Table 24.7 EU FSCs for poultry meat and products and non-compliance with them in 2012 (compiled from EC, 2005, 2011; EFSA/ECDC, 2014).
8. Table 24.8 Main microbial hazard control measures for poultry meat products.
Chapter 25
1. Table 25.1 Identification of 121 isolates with different colony morphology from 11 North Sea fish species after 7 or 4 days (ray) of ice storage, which did not grow on a specific growth medium: plate count agar (PCA), marine agar (MA), Long and Hammer medium (LH), and iron agar with 0.5% NaCl (IA). Second column: the (range of) similarity values (gyrB) against type strains; when the gyrB sequence could not be used, the 16S rRNA similarity values are used. Third column: the abundance of isolation of these species by the number of isolates. Fourth column: the fish samples on which the microorganisms are found. (From Broekaert et al., 2011. Reproduced by permission).
2. Table 25.2 Different general and specific media used in North Sea seafood analysis over the last years and the wide range of incubation parameters used.
3. Table 25.3 Changes in total aerobic psychrophilic count (APC in log₁₀ cfu/g) between T₀ (starting point of the experiments, mostly immediately after the catch) and T_end (most often at the end of shelf life), and shifts in the microbial ecology or in dominance (in % if possible) in microbiota between these two time points due to different storage or processing conditions (column 2) of several North Sea seafood products (column 1). NP: not provided. LS: Lightly salted (2.5%).
4. Table 25.4 Influence of the gas composition on specific spoilage organisms dominating fresh fish stored at 0 to 4 °C under different gas atmospheres (Gram and Huss, 1996, 2000; Huss et al., 1997; Lalitha et al., 2005; Poli et al., 2006). All these factors, together with the intrinsic features of the seafoods, create a seafood-specific microbiota.
5. Table 25.5 Microbiological counts on all growth media in log₁₀ cfu/g of raw shrimp and of cooked unpeeled shrimp sampled on board and processed under optimal lab conditions at T₀ (start of analyses). /: not performed. PCA = plate count agar, LH = modified Long and Hammer medium (Van Spreekens, 1974), MA = marine agar, CFC = Pseudomonas Cetrimide Fucidine Cephaloridine, MRS = Man Rogosa Sharp medium, VRBGA = violet red bile glucose agar, and IA = iron agar (Atlas, 2006). (From Broekaert et al., 2013. Reproduced by permission.)
6. Table 25.6 Summarizing table after Broekaert et al. (2013) with all identified species or genera found on brown shrimp during storage, with indications of the sample from which they were found, the time points during storage, the processing procedures (optimal = best hygienic handlings applied in the laboratory), the storage temperature, detection/identification techniques, and growth medium for isolation/detection. T₀ = at day 1, T₁ = after 7 days storage, T₂ = after 13 days storage. Rep = rep-PCR fingerprinting; DGGE = denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis; 16S = 16S rDNA sequencing. S = microbiota recovered from plate swabs, D = microbiota recovered from direct DNA extraction from the shrimp matrix. LH = modified Long and Hammer medium, PCA = plate count agar, IA = Lyngby iron agar, MA = marine agar, CFC = Pseudomonas Cetrimide Fucidine Cephaloridine agar. (Reproduced by permission.)
Chapter 26
1. Table 26.1 Microbial ecology of sauces.
Chapter 27
1. Table 27.1 Aflatoxin contamination in different types of nut worldwide.
Chapter 28
1. Table 28.1 Main species and characteristics of must/wine related species: (A) yeasts; (B) bacteria.
2. Table 28.2 Molecular methods used to identify wine microorganisms.
Chapter 29
1. Table 29.1 Description of bottled water types according to European Union (EU) and United States of America (US) Legislation.
2. Table 29.2 Chemical and microbiological parameters and labeling indications of bottled water according to EU and US legislation (Table 29.1).
3. Table 29.3 Diversity of bacteria identified on basis of 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis in mineral or spring water, detected in the aquifer or bottled water.
Chapter 30
1. Table 30.1 Impact of basic processes on the prevalence of the microbial hazard (P) and on the microbial level (number of cells, N, or concentration of cells, C). “0” no change, “–” decrease, “+” increase (adapted from Nauta, 2001).
2. Table 30.2 Dynamics of the B. cereus population during the REPFED production process. Impact of production steps on the prevalence (P), on the microbial level (N_unit, number of cells per food unit), and on food unit size. “=” no change, “–” decrease, “+” increase (adapted from Daelman et al., 2013).
Chapter 31
1. Table 31.1 Quorum sensing signals detected in foods.
Chapter 33
1. Table 33.1 Studies describing the acquisition of hyper-resistance to food-related stresses.
2. Table 33.2 Prevalence of rpoS mutants among natural populations in Enterobacteriaceae.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01
1. Figure 1.1 Integrative parameters affecting the development of microbial ecosystems in food.
2. Figure 1.2 Towards developing models from predictive microbiology to quantitative microbial ecology and systems biology.
Chapter 02
1. Figure 2.1 Changes in population of lactic acid bacteria (), yeasts (), E. coli O157:H7 (), pH (), glucose concentration (), and undissociated lactic acid () during the inoculated fermentation of green olives with Lactobacillus plantarum.
2. Figure 2.2 Growth of L. monocytogenes single cells (a), or 100 cells/slice (b), and the natural mesophilic flora (c, d) on the corresponding slices of ham formulated without antimicrobials, packaged under vacuum and stored at 10 °C (Skandamis and Sofos 2010; unpublished data).
3. Figure 2.3 Growth of L. monocytogenes single cells/slice (a, c) or 100 cells/slice (b, d) as single strain (a, b) or in a mixture of three strains (c, d) on slices of ham formulated with antimicrobials, packaged under vacuum and stored at 10 °C (Skandamis and Sofos 2010; unpublished data).
Chapter 03
1. Figure 3.1 A fluid (in gray) between two parallel plates (in white) at rest. Each plate has an area A in contact with the fluid, and the distance between the plates is dy (a); a force f is applied to the upper plate, which is moved in the z direction (b); a cross-section in the yz plane, showing the velocity vectors v on the fluid (c).
2. Figure 3.2 Flow behavior of fluids. Shear stress versus shear rate (left) and the variation on the apparent viscosity as a function of the shear rate (right).
3. Figure 3.3 Typical fluid velocity profiles during flow inside a pipe (Newtonian fluid at laminar and turbulent flow regimes).
4. Figure 3.4 Velocity profiles during laminar flow inside a pipe for fluids described by the Ostwald-de-Waele model: Newtonian (n = 1), infinite shear thinning (n = 0), and infinite shear thicker (n = ∞).
5. Figure 3.5 Friction factor chart for Newtonian fluid flow in pipes (left); power requirement during mixing of Newtonian fluids with different impellers (right).
6. Figure 3.6 Pure water and food products behavior during cooling and freezing (atmospheric pressure): frozen water content at the equilibrium as a function of temperature; total thermal energy removed during the process (q).
7. Figure 3.7 Dimensionless temperature at a specific position and geometry (slab, cylinder, sphere) as a function of time (as the Fourier number), the product thermal properties, and the system conditions (as the Biot number).
8. Figure 3.8 Representation of the cold spot location (black stars) during in-package food thermal processing using cylindrical cans (longitudinal section): (a) conductive food without headspace, (b) conductive food with headspace, (c) high consistency convective food, (d) low consistency convective food, (e) particulates food with high consistency fluid, and (f) particulates food with low consistency fluid.
9. Figure 3.9 Representation of the cold spot location (black stars) during the thermal process of conductive foods: cooked ham containing a fat layer (left) and a conductive food packaged on a cylindrical can, heated by water sprinklers (right).
10. Figure 3.10 Dimensionless mean concentration at specific geometries (slab, cylinder, sphere) as a function of time (as the Fick number) in a diffusion mass transfer process.
Chapter 05
1. Figure 5.1 Electromagnetic spectrum with its various regions ordered by frequency and wavelength.
Chapter 06
1. Figure 6.1 A basic refrigeration system.
2. Figure 6.2 Survival of Salmonella spp. in chicken chow mein at –25.5 °C (Jay et al., 2005; original data source: Gunderson and Rose, 1948).
3. Figure 6.3 Survival of rifampicin-resistant and wild strains of E. coli O157:H7 in beef at 5 °C (Huang, 2010, unpublished data).
4. Figure 6.4 Growth of L. monocytogenes in fresh-cut cantaloupe stored between 0 and 10 °C (based on Fang et al., 2013; initial bacterial count = 1 cfu/g).
5. Figure 6.5 Geometry used for finite element analysis of cylindrical beef roast. Shown in the figure is a quadrant of the axial cross-section of a beef roast (diameter = 0.09 m, height = 0.19 m). The arrows show the outflowing heat flux during cooling.
6. Figure 6.6 FEM simulation of heat transfer during cooking of cylindrical beef roasts (raw data taken from Obuz et al., 2002). TC and TS: simulated temperature at the geometric center and on the surface; TC_Obuz and TS_Obuz: the temperature at the geometric center and on the surface taken from Fig. 2 of Obuz et al. (2002).
7. Figure 6.7 Simulated temperature histories at GC, 0.5R, and R with h = 35 W/m² °C and cooling temperatures = 0, 5, and 10 °C.
8. Figure 6.8 Simulated temperature histories at GC, 0.5R, and R with h = 20 W/m² °C and cooling temperatures = 0, 5, and 10 °C.
9. Figure 6.9 Simulated temperature histories at GC, 0.5R, and R with h = 10 W/m² °C and cooling temperatures = 0, 5, and 10 °C.
10. Figure 6.10 Dynamic simulation of growth of C. perfringens in beef roasts under different cooling temperatures and h = 35 W/m² °C.
11. Figure 6.11 Dynamic simulation of growth of C. perfringens in beef roasts under a cooling temperature of –5 °C and h = 5 W/m² °C.
12. Figure 6.12 Simulated end-point relative growth under different cooling conditions. Smooth lines represent cooling temperatures (solid lines: 0 °C; dotted lines: 5 °C; broken lines: 10 °C). Empty diamonds: geometric center; empty squares: 0.5R; empty triangles: surface (R).
Chapter 07
1. Figure 7.1 Representation of the typical phases of the drying process of foods.
2. Figure 7.2 Dynamic model (log-linear shoulder) at different ramp rates representing inactivation of E. coli K12 in culture broth as a consequence of applying a heating process
3. Figure 7.3 Fate of Escherichia coli O157:H7, O26:H11, and O111:H- in chocolate during storage at 10, 22, and 38 °C
Chapter 08
1. Figure 8.1 Electromagnetic spectrum (from http://www.viewzone2.com/dna.html).
2. Figure 8.2 The dose inactivation curve of a typical bacterial population.
3. Figure 8.3 Effect of UV-C light on DNA double strand (from http://www.aquafineuv.com/UVTechnology/UVScience.aspx).
Chapter 09
1. Figure 9.1 Cell structures of untreated and 500 MPa for 30 min treated E. coli and S. aureus under transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
2. Figure 9.2 Efficacy of non-thermal treatment of HPP and plant essential oils for 30 min, alone and in combination, on viability of C. gloeosporioides spores: () without oil, () with 0.75 mg/ml citral oil, and () with 0.75 mg/ml lemongrass essential oil
Chapter 11
1. Figure 11.1 Non-thermal inactivation of the food-borne pathogen L. monocytogenes inoculated in the batter of a fermented sausage (Sudjuk) manufactured with the addition of starter culture (Lactobacillus sakei I151). Closed circles, observed data; solid line, predicted data according to the log-linear with a shoulder model.
Chapter 12
1. Figure 12.1 Mixing food ingredients results in rearrangement of the distribution of microorganisms in a food product.
Chapter 13
1. Figure 13.1 Temperature range of growth for most human pathogenic bacteria.
2. Figure 13.2 Diagram of continuous pasteurization using a plate heat exchanger.
3. Figure 13.3 Effects of increasing process severity on safety and quality.
4. Figure 13.4 Death rate curve.
5. Figure 13.5 Thermal death time curve.
Chapter 14
1. Figure 14.1 Transmission routes of food-borne viruses.
Chapter 17
1. Figure 17.1 Genetic Map of Salmonella Saintpaul propanediol operon (see GenBank sequence gb|AOXY01000026.1). Regions of two propanediol genes (pduF and pduB) with location and positions of nonsynonymous and synonymous SNP mutations.
Chapter 18
1. Figure 18.1 Distribution of the pathogens responsible for the outbreaks after consumption of fruit salad (left) and tomatoes (right).
2. Figure 18.2 pH values of fruits (Jay et al., 1992; Basset and McClure, 2008).
Chapter 20
1. Figure 20.1 Common manufacturing processes used for edible nut products and microbial contamination sources.
2. Figure 20.2 Changes in bacteria densities of aerobic plate count, coliforms, and Bacillus cereus in a product line sample of (a) alfalfa sprouts and (b) rapeseed sprouts. Data were provided by Kim et al. (2013).
Chapter 22
1. Figure 22.1 Major stages of the beef production process and antimicrobial interventions implemented at some large beef packing plants. LA, lactic acid; PAA, peroxyacetic acid.
Chapter 24
1. Figure 24.1 Generic framework for chilled poultry carcass meat safety assurance in respect to Salmonella and Campylobacter.
2. Figure 24.2 Common scenarios of further poultry meat processing.
3. Figure 24.3 Generic framework linking poultry meat products safety assurance and risk-based food safety objective concept.
Chapter 25
1. Figure 25.1 The total aerobic psychrotrophic count (APC) (log₁₀ cfu/g) on plate count agar (PCA), marine agar (MA), Long and Hammer medium (LH) and iron agar with 0.5% NaCl (IA) (mean of duplicate platings) for 11 fish samples after 7 days or 4 days (ray) of ice storage (right). (After Broekaert et al., 2011. Reproduced by permission.)
2. Figure 25.2 Microbiological counts on all growth media in log₁₀ cfu/g of cooked unpeeled (top) and manually peeled (bottom) shrimp under the best possible conditions at T₁ (7 days of storage) and T₂ (13 days of storage) on ice and at 7.5 °C. PCA = plate count agar, LH = modified Long and Hammer medium (Van Spreekens, 1974), MA = marine agar, CFC = Pseudomonas Cetrimide Fucidine Cephaloridine, MRS = Man Rogosa sharp medium, VRBGA = violet red bile glucose agar and IA = iron agar (Atlas, 2006). (After results from Broekaert et al., 2013. Reproduced by permission.)
Chapter 27
1. Figure 27.1 Schematic diagram of the honey manufacturing process.
Chapter 28
1. Figure 28.1 Yeast species observed under microscope: (a) Saccharomyces bayanus, (b) Dekkera bruxellensis, (c) Torulaspora delbrueckii.
Chapter 29
1. Figure 29.1 Examples of objectives and applications of approaches commonly used to characterize water microbiota based on membrane filtration methods.
2. Figure 29.2 Critical points for disturbance of microbial communities or microbiological contamination, overgrowth, or decay.
Chapter 30
1. Figure 30.1 Risk management metrics in the food production chain. ALOP: Appropriate Level of Protection, FSO: Food Safety Objective, PO: Performance Objective, PC: Performance Criterion.
2. Figure 30.2 Example of the use of the ICMSF formula to determine the process criterion of pre-cut washing for Listeria monocytogenes in a stochastic context. (a) Probability distribution of the initial level (H0) reduction (ΣR) and increase (ΣI) of L. monocytogenes in lettuce packages and (b) the resulting distribution (adapted from Zwietering et al., 2010).
Chapter 31
1. Figure 31.1 N-acyl homoserine lactone degradation mechanisms and categories of potential quorum quenching compounds.
Chapter 32
1. Figure 32.1 The sporulation cycle of spore-forming bacteria
2. Figure 32.2 Gene regulation during sporulation
3. Figure 32.3 Spore anatomy (see text for the details).
4. Figure 32.4 Schematic diagram of spore layers and elements that comprise the germination receptor system of Bacillus spores
5. Figure 32.5 Spore germination and outgrowth pathway in Bacillus spp.
6. Figure 32.6 Effect of heat treatment on spores, which generates a subpopulation of sublethal damage spores.
Chapter 33
1. Figure 33.1 Relationship between heat resistance (D₅₈ values in min) and membrane fluidity (as determined by FTIR spectroscopy, wavelength in cm^–1) of Salmonella Typhimurium.
2. Figure 33.2 Protective role of the amino acids arginine and lysine and the compatible solutes trehalose, ectoine (E), carnitine (C), proline (P), betaine (B), and choline (Ch) against acid stress and osmotic stress, respectively, in Salmonella Typhimurium.
3. Figure 33.3 Relevance of stress adaptive response for food safety. (a) Bacterial exposure to stress during food processing induces a viable but not culturable state (VBNC). VBNC cells are not detected by conventional food analytical methods but may resuscitate during their transit by the gastrointestinal tract. (b) Bacterial exposure to stress at primary production or at pre-processing may select stress hyper-resistant variants or induce stress tolerance responses, thus improving the survival to food processing or during the transit by the gastrointestinal tract.

Quantitative Microbiology in Food Processing

Modeling the Microbial Ecology