Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Chapter 1: Polyethylene-based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites: State-of-the-Art, New Challenges and Opportunities

1.1 Introduction
1.2 History of the Synthesis of Polyethylene: From Fossil Fuels to Renewable Chemicals
1.3 Commercial Significance of PE and Bio(nano) Composites
1.4 State-of-the-Art
1.5 Preparation Methods for Nanocomposites and Bionanocomposites
1.6 Environmental Concerns with Regard to Nanoparticles
1.7 Challenges and Opportunities
References

Chapter 2: Polyethylene/Chitin-based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Preparation of Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
2.3 Characterization of Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
2.4 Applications
2.5 Conclusions and Perspectives
References

Chapter 3: Polyethylene/Starch-based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Polyethylene/Starch-based Composite
3.3 Conclusion
Abbreviations
References

Chapter 4: Polyethylene/Soy Protein-based Biocomposites: Properties, Applications, Challenges and Opportunities

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Processing of Soy Protein
4.3 Effect of Different Compatibilizers on Polyethylene/Soy Protein-based Biocomposites
4.4 Opportunity and Challenges
References

Chapter 5: Polyethylene/Hemicellulose-based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Hemicellulose Structure
5.3 Hemicellulose Properties
5.4 Hemicellulose-based Biocomposites
5.5 Hemicellulose-based Bionanocomposites
5.6 Hemicellulose Applications
5.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References

Chapter 6: Polyethylene/Polyhydroxyalkanoates-based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Polyethylene/Polyhydroxyalkanoates-based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
6.3 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References

Chapter 7: Polyethylene/Other Biomaterials-based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Polyethylene/Lignin-based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
7.3 Polyethylene/Alginate-based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
7.4 Polyethylene/Casein-based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
7.5 Conclusions
References

Chapter 8: Studies of Polyethylene-based Biocomposites, Bionanocomposites and Other Non-Biobased Nanocomposites

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Studies of Polyethylene-based Biocomposites
8.3 Studies of Polyethylene-based Bionanocomposites
8.4 Studies of Polyethylene and Other Non-biobased Nanocomposites
8.5 Concluding Remarks
References

Chapter 9: Biodegradation Study of Polyethylene-based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Biopolymer-based Biocomposites
9.3 Biopolymer-based Bionanocomposites
9.4 Applications of Biopolymer-based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites
9.5 Biodegradation
9.6 Biodegradation Study of Cellulose-based Biocomposites/Bionanocomposites
9.7 Biodegradation Study of Chitin-based Biocomposites/Bionanocomposites
9.8 Biodegradation Study of Starch-based Biocomposites/Bionanocomposites
9.9 Biodegradation Study of Hemicellulose-based Biocomposites/Bionanocomposites
9.10 Biodegradation Study of Polylactic Acid-based Biocomposites/Bionanocomposites
9.11 Biodegradation Study of Polyhydroxyalkanoates-based Biocomposites/Bionanocomposites
9.12 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References

Chapter 10: Polyethylene-based Bio- and Nanocomposites for Packaging Applications

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Polyethylene-based Nanocomposites
10.3 Polyethylene-based Biocomposites
10.4 Polyethylene-based Bionanocomposites
10.5 Conclusions
References

Chapter 11: Properties and Utilization of Plant Fibers and Nanocellulose for Thermoplastic Composites

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Plant Fibers
11.3 Nanocellulose
11.4 Conclusions
References

Chapter 12: Modification of Poly(lactic acid) Matrix by Chemically Modified Flax Fiber Bundles and Poly(ethylene glycol) Plasticizer

12.1 Introduction
12.2 Experimental
12.3 Results and Discussion
12.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Dispersion of layered nanofiller (grey structure) in a polymer matrix (black lines).
Figure 1.2 Classification of polymers in dependence of their raw material origin and biodegradability.
Figure 1.3 Polymerization of ethene.
Figure 1.4 Global production capacity of biopolymers from 2013 to 2019 (Data from [68]).
Figure 1.5 Pathway from chitin to chitosan.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Chemical structure of chitin.
Figure 2.2 Chitosan chemical structure.
Figure 2.3 Chemical structure of peptide chain.
Figure 2.4 Basic decomposition mechanism of the peptide chain.
Figure 2.5 Shrimp co-products: (a) roe, (b) after demineralization, (c) after deproteinization, and (d) purified chitin.
Figure 2.6 FTIR spectra of shrimp co-products and purified chitin.
Figure 2.7 Young’s modulus evolution of LDPE composites based on the chitin percent.
Figure 2.8 Evolution of tensile strength and elongation at break of LDPE composites based on the chitin percent.
Figure 2.9 Experimental and theoretical composites of the Young’s modulus evolution based on the chitin percent.
Figure 2.10 Young’s modulus evolution of LDPE nanocomposites based on the nanochitin percent.
Figure 2.11 Tensile strength and elongation at break evolution of LDPE nanocomposites based on the nanochitin percent.
Figure 2.12 (a) Torsion storage modulus evolution of LDPE composites based on the chitin percent. (b) Loss fracture evolution of LDPE nanocomposites based on the nanochitin percent.
Figure 2.13 (a) The torsion storage modulus evolution of LDPE nanocomposites based on the nanochitin percent. (b) Loss factor evolution of LDPE nanocomposites based on the nanochitin percent.
Figure 2.14 (a) Storage modulus evolution of LDPE composite based on the frequency. (b) Loss factor evolution of LDPE composite based on the frequency.
Figure 2.15 (a) Storage modulus evolution of LDPE nanocomposite based on the frequency. (b) Loss factor evolution of LDPE nanocomposite based on the frequency.
Figure 2.16 Complex viscosity evolution of LDPE composite based on the frequency.
Figure 2.17 Complex viscosity evolution of LDPE nanocomposite based on the frequency.
Figure 2.18 Crosspoint frequency evolution of LDPE composite based on the chitin percent.
Figure 2.19 Crosspoint frequency evolution of LDPE nanocomposite based on the nanochitin percent.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Effect of soya powder content on the processing parameter of LLDPE/soya powder blends.
Figure 4.2 Effect of soya powder content on peak torque of LLDPE/soya powder blends with and without PE-g-MA as a compatibilizer.
Figure 4.3 Effect of soya powder content on the stabilization torque of LLDPE/soya powder blends with and without PE-g-MA as a compatibilizer.
Figure 4.4 Tensile strength of LLDPE/soya powder blends with and without PE-g-MA as a compatibilizer.
Figure 4.5 Elongation at break (E_b) of LLDPE/soya powder blends with and without PE-g-MA as a compatibilizer.
Figure 4.6 Young’s modulus of LLDPE/soya powder blends with and without PE-g-MA as a compatibilizer.
Figure 4.7 DSC melting thermograms of pure LLDPE, LLDPE/soya powder blend, and LLDPE/soya powder blend with PE-g-MA.
Figure 4.8 DSC crystallization thermograms of pure LLDPE, LLDPE/soya powder blend, and LLDPE/soya powder blend with PE-g-MA.
Figure 4.9 Thermogravimetric analysis of pure LLDPE and LLDPE/soya powder blends.
Figure 4.10 Tensile fracture surface of (a) pure LLDPE, (b) 5% soya powder loading, (c) 20% soya powder loading and (d) 40% soya powder loading.
Figure 4.11 Tensile fracture surface of LLDPE/soya powder blends with (a) 5% soya powder loading, (b) 20% soya powder loading and (c) 40% soya powder loading with PE-g-MA as a compatibilizer.
Figure 4.12 Tensile strength and retention versus soya powder loading for uncompatibilized blends after weathering.
Figure 4.13 Tensile strength and retention versus soya powder loading for compatibilized blends after weathering.
Figure 4.14 Comparison of tensile strength after 1 year natural weathering.
Figure 4.15 E_b and retention versus soya powder loading for uncompatibilized blends.
Figure 4.16 E_b and retention versus soya powder loading for compatibilized blends.
Figure 4.17 Comparison of E_b after 1 year natural weathering.
Figure 4.18 Young’s modulus and retention versus soya powder content for uncompatibilized blends.
Figure 4.19 Young’s modulus and retention versus soya powder content for compatibilized blends.
Figure 4.20 Comparison of Young’s modulus after 1 year natural weathering.
Figure 4.21 Melting thermogram of the neat LLDPE, compatibilized and uncompatibilized blends with 40 wt% soya powder after 1 year natural weathering.
Figure 4.22 Cooling thermogram of the neat LLDPE, compatibilized and uncompatibilized blends with 40 wt% soya powder after 1 year natural weathering.
Figure 4.23 SEM micrographs (500x) of weathered surface for uncompatibilized blends with soya powder content at (a) 0 wt%, (b) 5 wt%, (c) 20 wt% and (d) 40 wt% after 6 months weathering.
Figure 4.24 SEM micrographs (500x) of weathered surface for uncompatibilized blends with soya powder content at (a) 0 wt%, (b) 5 wt%, (c) 20 wt% and (d) 40 wt% after 1 year weathering.
Figure 4.25 SEM micrographs (500x) of weathered surface for PE-g-MA compatibilized blends with soya powder content at (a) 5 wt%, (b) 20 wt% and (c) 40 wt% after 6 months weathering
Figure 4.26 SEM micrographs (500x) of weathered surface for PE-g-MA compatibilized blends with soya powder content at (a) 5 wt%, (b) 20 wt% and (c) 40 wt% after 1 year weathering.
Figure 4.27 Tensile strength and retention versus soya powder content for uncompatibilized blends after soil burial.
Figure 4.28 Tensile strength and retention versus soya powder content for compatibilized blends after soil burial.
Figure 4.29 E_b and retention versus soya powder content for uncompatibilized blends after soil burial.
Figure 4.30 E_b and retention versus soya powder content for compatibilized blends after soil burial.
Figure 4.31 Young’s modulus and retention versus soya powder content for uncompatibilized blends after soil burial test.
Figure 4.32 Young’s modulus and retention versus soya powder content for compatibilized blends after soil burial test.
Figure 4.33 DSC melting thermogram of LLDPE, uncompatibilized and compatibilized LLDPE/soya powder blends for 1 year soil burial.
Figure 4.34 DSC cooling thermogram of LLDPE, uncompatibilized and compatibilized LLDPE/soya powder blends for 1 year soil burial.
Figure 4.35 SEM micrographs (500x) of uncompatibilized blends surface with soya powder content at (a) 0 wt%, (b) 5 wt%, (c) 20 wt% and (d) 40 wt% after 6 months soil burial.
Figure 4.36 SEM micrographs (500x) of uncompatibilized blends surface with soya powder content at (a) 0 wt%, (b) 5 wt%, (c) 20 wt% and (d) 40 wt% after 1 year soil burial.
Figure 4.37 SEM micrographs (500x) of compatibilized blends surface with soya powder content at (a) 5 wt%, (b) 20 wt% and (c) 40 wt% after 6 months soil burial.
Figure 4.38 SEM micrographs (500x) of compatibilized blends surface with soya powder content at (a) 5 wt%, (b) 20 wt% and (c) 40 wt% after 1 year soil burial.
Figure 4.39 Effect of soya powder content on peak torque of LLDPE/soya powder blends with and without ENR 50 as a compatibilizer.
Figure 4.40 Effect of soya powder content on stabilization torque of LLDPE/soya powder blends with and without ENR 50 as a compatibilizer.
Figure 4.41 Tensile strength of uncompatibilized and compatibilized LLDPE/soya powder blends with different soya powder contents.
Figure 4.42 Elongation at break of uncompatibilized and compatibilized LLDPE/soya powder blends with different soya powder contents.
Figure 4.43 Young’s modulus of uncompatibilized and compatibilized LLDPE/soya powder blends with different soya powder contents.
Figure 4.44 DSC melting thermograms of neat LLDPE, LLDPE/40% soya powder, and LLDPE/40% soya powder/ENR 50 blends.
Figure 4.45 DSC crystallization thermograms of neat LLDPE, LLDPE/40% soya powder, and LLDPE/40% soya powder/ENR 50 blends.
Figure 4.46 Weight loss versus temperature diagrams of LLDPE, LLDPE/soya powder blends, and LLDPE/soya powder/ENR 50 blends.
Figure 4.47 Tensile fracture surface of LLDPE/soya powder blends with (a) 5 wt% soya powder loading, (b) 20 wt% soya powder loading and (c) 40 wt% soya powder content with ENR 50 as a compatibilizer.
Figure 4.48 Tensile strength and its retention of compatibilized blends after different periods of weathering.
Figure 4.49 E_b and its retention of compatibilized blends after different periods of weathering.
Figure 4.50 Young’s modulus and its retention of compatibilized blends after different periods of weathering.
Figure 4.51 Melting thermogram of compatibilized blends before and after weathering.
Figure 4.52 Cooling thermogram of compatibilized blends before and after weathering.
Figure 4.53 Weathered surface (500x magnification) of compatibilized blends with (a) 5 wt%, (b) 20 wt%, and (c) 40 wt% soya powder content after 6 months weathering.
Figure 4.54 Weathered surface (500x magnification) of compatibilized blends with (a) 5 wt%, (b) 20 wt%, and (c) 40 wt% soya powder content after 1 year weathering.
Figure 4.55 Comparison of weight loss for uncompatibilized and compatibilized blends after weathering.
Figure 4.56 The change of tensile strength and its retention for ENR 50-compatibilized blends in different periods of soil burial exposure.
Figure 4.57 The change of E_b and its retention for ENR 50-compatibilized blends in different periods of soil burial exposure.
Figure 4.58 The change of Young’s modulus and its retention for ENR 50-compatibilized blends in different periods of soil burial exposure.
Figure 4.59 Buried surface (500x magnification) of compatibilized blends with (a) 5 wt%, (b) 20 wt%, and (c) 40 wt% soya powder content after 6 months natural soil burial.
Figure 4.60 Buried surface (500x magnification) of compatibilized blends with (a) 5 wt%, (b) 20 wt% and (c) 40 wt% soya powder content after 1 year natural soil burial.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Compounding process: Biocomposite materials based on thermoplastic polymers, such as polypropylene and polyethylene, are processed by compounding and extrusion [13].
Figure 7.2 Consumption of natural fibers for composite production. Data about the automotive industry in Europe, 2012 [6].
Figure 7.3 Chemical structure of pure polyethylene.
Figure 7.4 Schematic representations of the different classes of polyethylene: (a) High-density polyethylene; (b) linear low-density polyethylene; and (c) low-density polyethylene.
Figure 7.5 Structure of lignin.
Figure 7.6 Mechanical properties of PE-based biocomposites with 50 wt% lignin precipitated at different pH: (a) all lignin samples isolated from bulk delignification stage and cooking stages (b) lignin composites precipitated at pH 5 and (c) lignin composites precipitated at pH 10.5 [52].
Figure 7.7 (a) TGA and (b) DTG thermograms for LDPE/ligph biocomposites [51], where ligph = phthalated lignin and C = compatibilizer.
Figure 7.8 (a) Gel permeation chromatogram of the THF extract from biodegraded PE having 20 wt% lignin; (b) UV spectra of oligomer fractions obtained by GPC analysis of the THF extract from biodegraded PE containing 20 wt% lignin corresponding to the retention times 5.47 min (—), 6.51 min (………), 8.19 min (——); and (c) the FTIR spectra of the THF extract of biodegraded lignin polyolefin biocomposites [61].
Figure 7.9 SEM photos for lignin LDPE/lignin biocomposites: (a) Lignin, (b) Uncompatibilized LDPE/lignin composites with 40 wt% lignin content, (c) EVA compatibilized LDPE/lignin composites with 40 wt% lignin content, and (d) PE-g-MA compatibilized LDPE/lignin composites with 40 wt% lignin content [64].
Figure 7.10 Repeating D-mannuronic, L-guluronic and β-D-mannuronic-α-L-guluronic acid blocks in alginic acid (M = β-D-mannuronic acid; G = α-L-guluronic acid).
Figure 7.11 SEM micrographs of polyethylene/alginate biocomposites: (a) initial composites, (b) surface of the biocomposite after three months of biodegradation in water, as medium and (c) surface of the composite after six months of biodegradation in water as medium [89].
Figure 7.12 Structure of casein.
Figure 7.13: Confocal laser scanning images of polyethylene (PE) biocomposites with 20% dairy bioplastic, showing green autofluorescence of the dairy protein matrix [6].

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Molecular structures of HDPE, LDPE and LLDPE.
Figure 8.2 Molecular structure of starch.
Figure 8.3 Tensile strength and Young’s modulus of LDPE/TPSS blends reinforced with KCF of different loadings.
Figure 8.4 IR spectra of LDPE/TPSS blends reinforced with KCF of different loadings.
Figure 8.5 TGA thermograms of LDPE/TPSS blends reinforced with KCF of different loadings.
Figure 8.6 SEM morphology of halloysite nanotubes (20.0 kX magnification).
Figure 8.7 Schematic of halloysite nanotubes structure.
Figure 8.8 Schematic of terminology used to describe nanocomposites formed from clays.
Figure 8.9 Tensile strength and Young’s modulus of LDPE/TPSS/KCF biocomposites with the addition of HNT at different loadings.
Figure 8.10 Synergistic interaction between TPSS, KCF and HNT.
Figure 8.11 SEM morphology of embedded HNTs within the polymer matrix (3.0 kX magnification).
Figure 8.12 TG themograms of KCF-reinforced LDPE/TPSS blends with the addition of HNT at various loadings.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 A general overview of the concept of PE bionanocomposites.
Figure 10.2 Morphologies currently found in polymer/clay composites: a) Inmiscible, b) Intercalation, and c) Exfolation [26].
Figure 10.3 Different processes for the production of polymer nanocomposites.
Figure 10.4 Regular arrangement of orthogonally shaped platelets in a parallel array with their main direction perpendicular to the diffusion direction, increasing the tortuosity of permeant gas [34].
Figure 10.5 ossible mechanisms for changes in the barrier behavior of a polymer nanocomposite: a) when there is a good interaction between the polymer and the particle, the filler act as a barrier increasing the tortuosity and therefore decreasing the permeability; b) when there is lack of interaction between the phases, voids are formed in the polymer/particle interphase where the gas can easily diffuse, increasing the permeability; and c) at some concentration these voids can overlap with each other, forming preferential permeation channels, which could go through the entire percolated polymeric film, sharply increasing the permeation.
Figure 10.6 General overview of water uptake in PE biocomposites. In pure PE/biopolymer blends (left), the lack of a proper interaction between the polymers produces voids where water can penetrate. Moreover, all the OH groups from the biopolymer are available for water absorption. When a compatibilizer is used (right), the interaction between PE and the biofiller is improved, reducing the voids and the functional groups from the compatibilizer interacting with the biofiller, reducing the number of OH groups available to water absorption.
Figure 10.7 General overview of PE bionanocomposites. The presence of clay nanoplatelets during processing avoids contact between biopolymer phases, thereby improving their dispersion and compatibilization with PE matrix. These improvements produced smaller biopolymer phase sizes in bionanocomposites than in biocomposites. Clay is mostly dispersed in the PE matrix and in the PE/biofiller interphase.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Schematics of (a) single cellulose chain repeat unit, showing the directionality of the 1 → 4 linkage and intrachain hydrogen bonding (dotted line); (b) idealized cellulose microfibril showing one of the suggested configurations of the crystalline and amorphous regions; and (c) cellulose nanocrystals after acid hydrolysis dissolved the disordered regions. (Reprinted with permission from [11])
Figure 11.2 Structural representations of cellulose (a), hemicellulose (b), and lignin (c) [15].
Figure 11.3 Three major families of nanocellulose: microfibrils, nanofibrils, and NCC (nanocrystalline cellulose). (Reprinted with permission from [33])
Figure 11.4 The most popular applications of nanocellulose. (Reprinted with permission from [34])
Figure 11.5 (a) photograph showing microfibrillated cellulose (5 wt% microfibrillated cellulose and 95 wt% water) and (b) optical micrograph showing the microstructure of the cellulose fibrils. (Reprinted with permission from [47]).
Figure 11.6 Laboratory-scale Supergrinder™ (Masuko Sangyo Co. Ltd). (Photo by N. Ayrilmis).
Figure 11.7 The crosslinked network between the MFC and the UF molecules. (Reprinted with permission from [47])
Figure 11.8 Scheme of the main steps needed to prepare NCC from lignocellulosic biomass. (Reprinted with permission from [50])

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Schematic representation of possible interactions between PLA matrix and silane-treated flax fiber.
Figure 12.2 FTIR spectra of untreated and treated flax fibers using a fiber/silane ratio of 1:2 for one hour in different solvent mediums: (a) untreated, (b) water, (c) ethanol/water, (d) acetone/water, (e) acetone.
Figure 12.3 FTIR spectra of untreated fibers and after treating fibers in ethanol/water solvent medium for one h with different fiber/silane weight ratios: (a) untreated, (b) 1:3, (c) 1:2, (d) 1:1.
Figure 12.4 Three hours with different fiber/silane weight ratios: (a) untreated, (b) 1:3, (c) 1:2, (d) 1:1.
Figure 12.5 An ethylene glycol liquid drop on networks of untreated and treated flax fibers modified in ethanol/water solvent medium for 3 h with different fiber/silane weight ratios: (a) untreated, (b) 1:1, (c) 1:2, (d) 1:3.
Figure 12.6 TGA thermograms of untreated and treated flax fibers modified in ethanol/water solvent medium for 3 h with different fiber/silane weight ratios.
Figure 12.7 Tensile properties of neat PLA and 20 wt% flax fiber/PLA composites at different fiber/silane weight ratios: (a) strength, (b) elastic modulus and (c) strain at break.
Figure 12.8 First heating scans of neat PLA and plasticized PLA with different amounts of PEG: (a) neat PLA, (b) 2 wt% PEG, (c) 5 wt% PEG, (d) 7 wt% PEG and (e) 9 wt% PEG.
Figure 12.9 Calculated T_g data with Fox (solid line) and Gordon-Taylor (dashed line) equations and experimental data as a function of the percentage of PEG in blends.
Figure 12.10 Tensile stress vs. deformation curves for PLA modified with different PEG content.
Figures 12.11 Tensile properties of neat PLA and PLA/PEG systems: (a) strain at break, (b) elastic modulus and (c) strength.
Figure 12.12 Tensile stress-strain curves for neat PLA, PLA/PEG blend, treated flax fiber/PLA composite and PLA/PEG blend with 20 wt% treated flax fiber.

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Classification of PE [48, 52].
Table 1.2 Estimated shares in production capacities for biopolymers in 2019 based on a total capacitiy of 7,850,000 tons [68].

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Composite and nanocomposite compositions.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Chemical band of PE/starch obtained from IR spectra [7, 26, 60].

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Tensile properties of LLDPE/soya powder blends.
Table 4.2 Thermal properties of LLDPE/soya powder blends.
Table 4.3 TGA data for pure LLDPE and LLDPE/soya powder blends.
Table 4.4 Retention of tensile properties for LLDPE/soya powder blends after 1 year weathering.
Table 4.5 DSC results of LLDPE and LLDPE/soya powder blends after different periods of natural weathering.
Table 4.6 Weight loss of compatibilized and uncompatibilized LLDPE/soya powder blends.
Table 4.7 DSC results of LLDPE and LLDPE/soya powder blends after different periods of soil burial test.
Table 4.8 Retention of tensile properties for LLDPE/soya powder blends after 1 year soil burial test.
Table 4.9 Weight loss of compatibilized and uncompatibilized LLDPE/soya powder blends.
Table 4.10 Thermal properties of LLDPE/soya powder blends.
Table 4.11 TGA data for neat LLDPE and LLDPE/soya powder blends.
Table 4.12 Retention of tensile properties for uncompatibilized and compatibilized blends after 1 year outdoor exposure.
Table 4.13 DSC results of uncompatibilized and compatibilized LLDPE/soya powder blends after different periods of weathering testing.
Table 4.14 Retention of tensile properties for LLDPE/soya powder blends after 1 year soil burial test.
Table 4.15 DSC data for the uncompatibilized and ENR 50-compatibilized blends over 1 year natural soil burial.
Table 4.16 Comparison of weight loss for uncompatibilized and ENR 50-compatibilized blends after 1 year natural soil burial.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Sugar composition (weight % of total weight hemicellulose) of wheat straw samples subjected to different organic solvent pretreatments^a.
Table 5.2 The main types of polysaccharides present in hemicellulose [5, 12, 60].

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Tensile, bending, impact strength and hardness of linear low density polyethylene and its biocomposite (10 wt% fiber) [88].

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Summary of the works done related to LDPE and starch.
Table 8.2 Chemical compositions of various natural fibers [40, 41].
Table 8.3 Development of hybrid composites.
Table 8.4 Development of polyethylene-based carbon nanotube nanocomposites.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 List of important plant fibers. (Reprinted with permission from [9])
Table 11.2 Annual dry matter (ADM) and pulp yield of various plant fibers. (Reprinted with permission from [10])
Table 11.3 Comparison of physical and chemical properties of plant fibers with those of wood raw materials. (Reprinted with permission from [14])
Table 11.4 Mechanical properties of fibers as compared to conventional polymers. (Reprinted with permission from [9])
Table 11.5 Some typical representative commercial coupling agents. (Reprinted with permission from [1])
Table 11.6 Mechanical properties of various materials. (Reprinted with permission from [50])

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Average contact angle values obtained with EG for untreated fibers and after treating fibers in water/ethanol solvent medium for different reaction times with different fiber/silane weight ratios.
Table 12.2 Thermal transitions and the degree of crystallinity, X_c, of neat PLA and plasticized polymers.

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Preface

Many of the recent research accomplishments in the area of polyethylene-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites are summarized in this book, Polyethylene-based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites. The topics covered include the state of the art, new challenges and opportunities regarding polyethylene-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites; polyethylene/chitin- and polyethylene/starch-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites; the properties, applications, challenges and opportunities regarding polyethylene/soy protein-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites; polyethylene/hemicellulose-, polyethylene/polyhydroxyalkanoates- and polyethylene/other biomaterials-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites; studies of polyethylene-based biocomposites, bionanocomposites and other non-biobased nanocomposites; biodegradation study of polyethylene-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites; polyethylene-based bionanocomposites for packaging applications; properties and utilization of plant fibers and nanocellulose for thermoplastic composites; and modification of poly(lactic acid) matrix by chemically modified flax fiber bundles and poly(ethylene glycol) plasticizer. As indicated by its title, the emphasis of the book is on various aspects of polyethylene-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites and their preparation, characterization and applications. It is intended to serve as a “one-stop” reference resource for important research accomplishments in the area of polyethylene-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites.

This book will be a very valuable reference source for university and college faculties, professionals, post-doctoral research fellows, senior graduate students, and researchers from R&D laboratories working in the area of polyethylene and its biocomposites and bionanocomposites. The various chapters, which were contributed by prominent researchers from industry, academia and government/private research laboratories across the globe, are an up-to-date record of the major findings and observations in the field of polyethylene-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites.

Chapter 1 covers the history of the synthesis of polyethylene, the commercial significance of polyethylene (PE) and bio(nano)composites, the state of the art, preparation methods for nanocomposites and bionanocomposites, environmental concerns regarding nanoparticles, and related challenges and opportunities. The next chapter addresses the topic of chitin and nanochitin chemical extraction and its effect on the mechanical properties of low-density polyethylene, the synthetic polymer most used in the industrial field. The application of chitin in different fields is also discussed. Polyethylene/starch-based composites are discussed in Chapter 3. Different methods for their polymerization and fabrication are presented, along with their chemical and mechanical properties. Although the most important application of polyethylene/starch composites is in packaging, their biomedical applications are also presented. The optimization of polyethylene/starch composites for their application in packaging, particularly in the food industry, is discussed. In Chapter 4, the properties, application, challenges and opportunities of polyethylene/soy protein-based biocomposites are discussed and a complete overview is given of natural polymer sources researched for packaging applications and the industry techniques involved in packaging production.

Discussed in the following chapter on polyethylene/hemicellulose-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites are the different types of composites based on hemicellulose and hemicellulose derivatives. In addition to explaining the types of hemicellulose derivatives and their structures and properties, the effect of the structure of hemicellulose and its derivatives is briefly explained. The chapter concludes with an explanation of the application of hemicellulose-based biocomposites. Chapter 6 on polyethylene/polyhydroxyalkanoates-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites summarizes many of the recent research accomplishments in the area such as the state of the art in different preparation methods. Different characterization techniques are discussed, along with their biomedical, packaging, structural, military, coating, fire retardant, aerospace and optical applications. Recycling and lifetime studies are also presented. The next chapter discusses the structure of polyethylene/other biomaterials-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites. Many recent works on lignin, alginate and casein membranes are provided, along with their properties such as permeability, degradability, transparency and solubility. Chapter 8 on studies of polyethylene-based biocomposites, bionanocomposites and other non-biobased nanocomposites discusses many major topics such as studies of polyethylene-based biocomposites, polyethylene-based bionanocomposites, carbon nanotubes and their preparation and characterizations. The biodegradation study of polyethylene-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites is presented in Chapter 9, in which the author provides an overview of the biodegradability of cellulose-, hemicellulose-, chitin-, starch-, polylactic acid-, and polyhydroxyalkanoate-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites. In this chapter, several approaches to enhance the biodegradability of biocomposites and bionanocomposites are mentioned. Chapter 10 introduces the main concepts and examples for understanding these novel materials such as polyethylene-based nanocomposites, polyethylene-based biocomposites, and polyethylene-based bionanocomposites. The properties and utilization of plant fibers and nanocellulose for thermoplastic composites are discussed in Chapter 11. In this chapter the authors cover many recent advances in the use of plant fibers. The source, types, yield, chemical composition, mechanical properties, and modification of plant fibers are presented. Nanocellulose, microfibrillated cellulose and nanocrystalline cellulose are also discussed. The final chapter is on the modification of poly(lactic acid) matrix by chemically modified flax fiber bundles and poly(ethylene glycol) plasticizer. It reports on experimental flax fiber surface modification and characterization, compounding, processing and characterization of PLA/flax fibers composites and PLA/PEG blends, matrix modification with silane-treated fibers and PLA matrix modification with PEG.

In conclusion, the editors would like to express their sincere gratitude to all the contributors of this book, whose excellent support and enthusiasm made the successful completion of this venture possible. We are grateful to them for the commitment and sincerity they showed regarding their contributions, without which the compilation of a book would not have been possible. We would like to thank all the reviewers who have taken their valuable time to make critical comments on each chapter. We would also like to thank the publisher, John Wiley and Sons Ltd. and Scrivener Publishing, for recognizing the demand for such a book, for realizing the increasing importance of the area of Polyethylene-based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites, and for starting such a new project, which has not yet been handled by many other publishers.

Visakh. P. M.
Sigrid Lüftl
July 2016