Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Chapter 1: Nanostructured Polymer Membranes: Applications, State-of-the-Art, New Challenges and Opportunities

1.1 Membranes: Technology and Applications
1.2 Polymer Membranes: Gas and Vapor Separation
1.3 Membranes for Wastewater Treatment
1.4 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane and Methanol Fuel Cell
1.5 Polymer Membranes for Water Desalination and Treatment
1.6 Biopolymer Electrolytes for Energy Devices
1.7 Phosphoric Acid-Doped Polybenzimidazole Membranes
1.8 Natural Nanofibers in Polymer Membranes for Energy Applications
1.9 Potential of Carbon Nanoparticles for Pervaporation Polymeric Membranes
1.10 Mixed Matrix Membranes for Nanofiltration Application
1.11 Fundamentals, Applications and Future Prospects of Nanofiltration Membrane Technique
References

Chapter 2: Membranes: Technology and Applications

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Reverse Osmosis Process
2.3 Ultrafiltration Process
2.4 Pervaporation Process
2.5 Microfiltration Process
2.6 Coupled and Facilitated Transport
2.7 Membrane Distillation
2.8 Ultrafiltration Zeolite and Ceramic Membranes
2.9 Conclusions
References

Chapter 3: Polymeric Membranes for Gas and Vapor Separations

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Significance and Prominent Industrial Applications
3.3 Fundamentals and Transport of Gases in Polymeric Membranes
3.4 Polymeric Membrane Materials for Gas and Vapor Separations
3.5 Strategies for Tuning the Transport in Polymeric Membranes through Molecular Design and Architecture
3.6 Process Modeling and Simulation
3.7 Challenges and Future Directions
3.8 Concluding Remarks
References

Chapter 4: Membranes for Wastewater Treatment

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Membrane Theory
4.3 Membrane Separation Techniques in Industry
4.4 Membrane Operations in Wastewater Management
4.5 Existing Membrane Processes
4.6 Industrial Development of Membrane Modules
4.7 Conclusion
References

Chapter 5: Polymer Electrolyte Membrane and Methanol Fuel Cell

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs)
5.3 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs)
5.4 Principle and Working Process of PEMFCs
5.5 Principle and Working Process of DMFCs
5.6 Modeling and Theory of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells
5.7 Conclusion
References

Chapter 6: Polymer Membranes for Water Desalination and Treatment

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Polymer Membranes Used in Distillation
6.3 Membrane Distillation
6.4 Desalination Driven by MD Systems
6.5 MD Hybrid Systems for Water Desalination and Treatment
6.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References

Chapter 7: Polymeric Pervaporation Membranes: Organic-Organic Separation

7.1 General Introduction on Pervaporation
7.2 Brief History of Pervaporation
7.3 Polymeric Materials for Organic-Organic Separation – General Requirements
7.4 Pervaporation Case Studies for Organic-organic Separation
7.5 Conclusions and Future Directions
References

Chapter 8: Biopolymer Electrolytes for Energy Devices

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Chitosan-based Electrolyte Membranes
8.3 Methyl Cellulose-based Electrolyte Membranes
8.4 Biopolymer Electrolytes in Lithium Polymer Batteries
8.5 Biopolymer Electrolytes in Supercapacitors
8.6 Biopolymer Electrolytes in Fuel Cells
8.7 Biopolymer Electrolytes in Dye-sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs)
8.8 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References

Chapter 9: Phosphoric Acid-Doped Polybenzimidazole Membranes: A Promising Electrolyte Membrane for High Temperature PEMFC

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Synthesis of PBI
9.3 Characterization of PBI
9.4 Research Needs and Conclusions
Table of Abbreviations
References

Chapter 10: Natural Nanofibers in Polymer Membranes for Energy Applications

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Natural Fibers
10.3 Polymer Nanocomposite Membranes Based on Natural Fibers: Production, Properties and General Applications
10.4 Applications of Natural Fibers Nanocomposite Membranes in the Energy Field
10.5 Conclusions
References

Chapter 11: Potential Interests of Carbon Nanoparticles for Pervaporation Polymeric Membranes

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Principle of Permeation
11.3 Current Requirements for Pervaporation Membranes
11.4 Performances of Nanocomposite Membranes: From Membrane Preparations to Enhanced Properties with Carbon Nanoparticles
11.5 Impact of the Insertion of Carbon Particles in Pervaporation Membranes
11.6 Pervaporation Membranes
11.7 Pervaporation with the Use of MMM Containing Pristine Carbon Particles
11.8 Pervaporation with the Use of MMM Containing Functionalized Carbon Particles
11.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References

Chapter 12: Mixed Matrix Membranes for Nanofiltration Application

12.1 Introduction
12.2 Nanofiltration Process: History and Principles
12.3 Mixed Matrix Nanofiltration Membranes
12.4 Applications of Mixed Matrix Nanofiltration Membranes
12.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
List of Abbreviations
References

Chapter 13: Fundamentals, Applications and Future Prospects of the Nanofiltration Membrane Technique

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Membrane Synthesis
13.3 Membrane Characterization
13.4 Equations for Calculation of Operating Parameters
13.5 Effect of Feed Pressure on Process Flux
13.6 Optimization of NF Process Using Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
13.7 Applications of NF in Societal Development and Industrial Progress
13.8 Economics of NF Process for Groundwater Purification
13.9 Conclusions
References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Rejection characteristics of different membrane processes.
Figure 2.2 Schematic and picture of a plate-and-frame module.
Figure 2.3 Schematic and picture of a tubular module.
Figure 2.4 Schematic and picture of a hollow-fiber module.
Figure 2.5 Schematic and picture of a spiral-wound module.
Figure 2.6 Number of publications in ISI Web of Science on “reverse osmosis” from 1975 to 2013.
Figure 2.7 Principle schematic of osmosis and reverse osmosis.
Figure 2.8 Chemical structure of linear aromatic polyamide.
Figure 2.9 Chemical structure of sulfonated polysulfone.
Figure 2.10 Chemical structure of sulfonated poly(arylene ether sulfone).
Figure 2.11 Schematic of the interfacial composite membrane.
Figure 2.12 Chemical structure of crosslinked fully aromatic polyamide (a) and poly(piperazineamide) (b).
Figure 2.13 Major desalination processes.
Figure 2.14 Spiral-would RO membrane modules.
Figure 2.15 Number of publications in ISI Web of Science on “ultrafiltration” from 1975 to 2013.
Figure 2.16 SEM image of the cross section of the typical UF membrane.
Figure 2.17 Hollow-fiber UF membrane module.
Figure 2.18 The separation process and transport mechanism of PV membrane.
Figure 2.19 Number of publications in ISI Web of Science on “microfiltration” from 1975 to 2013.
Figure 2.20 Number of publications in ISI Web of Science on “membrane distillation” from 1980 to 2013.
Figure 2.21 Types of MD configurations.
Figure 2.22 Commercial ceramic UF membrane systems.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Variation in polymer specific volume as a function of temperature [7].
Figure 3.2 Typical gas sorption isotherms in polymeric membranes [40].
Figure 3.3 The pressure dependence of gas permeability in polymeric membranes [12].
Figure 3.4 Representative gas-permeable substituted polyacetylenes [93].
Figure 3.5 Molecular structures of polymers of intrinsic microporosity PIM-1 and PIM-7 [106].
Figure 3.6 Mole fraction of CO₂ on the permeate side as a function of module length for various nonideal and the accumulated effects as well as for ideal module operation [171].
Figure 3.7 O₂ mole fraction in permeate side stream b) N₂ mole fraction in feed side stream along with the active fiber length [141].
Figure 3.8 Fraction of bulk flux contribution of propane and propylene in binary mixture compared to the pure gas in a) 6FDA-6FpDA at 35 °C b) 6FDA-6FpDA at 70 °C c) 6FDA-DAM at 75 °C and d) 6FDA-TrMPD at 50 °C [194].
Figure 3.9 Comparison of experimental and calculated permeability of (a) propylene, (b) propane for 6FDA-DAM at 75 °C and (c) propylene, (d) propane for 6FDA-TrMPD at 50 °C (Gas composition 50/50 mol.%) [194].

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Concentration/gel polarization model schematic.
Figure 4.2 Two kinds of MBR configurations: (a) side-stream, (b) submerged.
Figure 4.3 Flow chart of the treatment of processed and potato pulp water at Emsland-Stärke GmbH. (Adapted from [8])
Figure 4.4 Flow diagram of integrated membrane process for the recycling of spent process water from fruit juice industries. (Adapted from [139])
Figure 4.5 Hybrid membrane process for the production of clear water and aroma concentrate from shrimp cooking juice. (Adapted from [141])
Figure 4.6 Integrated membrane process for treatment of olive mill wastewater.
Figure 4.7 Flow diagram of the treatment plant of the textile service company MEWA GmbH. (Adapted from [8])

Chapter 3

Figure 5.1 Global trend of energy demand between 2000 and 2012. Lighter shades is the liquid fuel consumption of non-OECD countries and darker shades presents the energy consumption of OECD nations.
Figure 5.2 Schematic of the first FC: (a) electrolysis of water and (b) current flow.
Figure 5.3 Six different types of FC.
Figure 5.4 Working principle of the PEMFC.
Figure 5.5 3D schematic of the PEMFC stack.
Figure 5.6 Schematic of the MEA.
Figure 5.7 The percentage of the flow field plate in the PEMFC [34].
Figure 5.8 Classification of materials for the flow field plate.
Figure 5.9 MEA fabrication.
Figure 5.10 Basic Nafion chemical structure.
Figure 5.11 Classification of polymer membranes for the PEMFC.
Figure 5.12 Kinetic model for the ORR [49].
Figure 5.13 Schematic of the general diffusion layer.
Figure 5.14 Classification of materials for the MPL.
Figure 5.15 Schematic of the dual-layer structure for the DL.
Figure 5.16 Membrane conductivity of Nafion membranes and PBI membrane with the operating temperature.
Figure 5.17 Annual unit shipments by FC types between 2009 and 2012 [57].
Figure 5.18 FCVs of various automakers.
Figure 5.19 Volumetric energy density of hydrogen, methanol, and ethanol.
Figure 5.20 Working principle of the DMFC.
Figure 5.21 Possible reaction path of methanol oxidation reaction.
Figure 5.22 Open flow field designs for the PEMFC.
Figure 5.23 Interdigitated flow field.
Figure 5.24 Schematic of the DMFC integrated with the valeveless piezoelectric pump [89].
Figure 5.25 Fuel management systems using EO pumps.
Figure 5.26 (a) Schematic of the natural-circulation fed DMFC [94] and (b) the three-step concept to pump liquid [97].
Figure 5.27 (Left) Micro-DMFC fabrication process and (Right) photo of a fabricated micro-DMFC [99].
Figure 5.28 Flexible micro DMFC [100].
Figure 5.29 Schematic of the polarization curve.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Representative SEM images of different MD membranes: (a, b) PTFE membranes fabricated by the melt-extrusion-stretching method; (c) PP membranes prepared from a melt-extrusion-mono-axially-stretching method; (d, e) PVDF membranes synthetized by NIPS and TIPS methods, respectively; (f) electrospun PVDF membrane; (g, h, i) different examples of PVDF hollow fibers. (Figures adapted with permission from [13], Copyright (2015) Elsevier; and from [24], Copyright (2011) ACS Publications).
Figure 6.2 Schematic representations of the main MD configurations.
Figure 6.3 Schematic representations of some MD modules: (a) rectangular DCMD modules using an extra roughened-surface flow channel for enhancement of heat transfer. (Reprinted with permission [97]; Copyright (2013) Elsevier); (b) flat-plate and pyramidal flow distributors. (Reprinted with permission from [11]; Copyright (2015) Elsevier); (c) spiral-wound AGMD modules. (Reprinted with permission from [55]; Copyright (2011) Elsevier); and (d) different hollow-fiber arrangements and final module configuration (adapted with permission from [99]; Copyright (2008) Elsevier).
Figure 6.4 Schematic representation of (a) a solar powered MD pilot plant. (Adapted with permission from [82]; Copyright (2009) Elsevier); and (b) the Memstill^® technology. (Reprinted with permission from [51]; Copyright (2006) Elsevier).
Figure 6.5 Schematic representation of a lab-scale FO-MD hybrid system. (Reprinted with permission from [134]; Copyright (2013) John Wiley & Sons, Inc)

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Schematic diagram of the organic-organic separation PV set-up.
Figure 7.2 Factors affecting the mass transport in PV [23].
Figure 7.3 Separation mechanism of hydrophilic and hydrophobic membranes for polar/nonpolar compounds in organic-organic separation.

Chapter 3

Figure 8.1 The structure of chitosan.
Figure 8.2 The structure of methyl cellulose.
Figure 8.3 Scheme of the electrochemical process of a lithium polymer battery.
Figure 8.4 (a) Charge-discharge profile and (b) discharge characteristics of LiCoO₂|hexanoly chitosan-LiCF₃SO₃-EC-PC|MCMB cell. Charge current: 7mA; discharge current: 2mA.
Figure 8.5 Temperature dependence of conductivity for (a) hexanoyl chitosan- LiCF₃SO₃, (b) hexanoyl chitosan-LiCF₃SO₃-EC and (c) hexanoyl chitosan-LiCF₃SO₃-EC-PC.
Figure 8.6 Discharge charactteristics of LiCoO₂ | hexanoyl chitosan-LiCF₃SO₃-EC-PC | MCMB cell at (a) 7 mA; (b) 2 mA and (c) 10 mA. Charging current: 7 mA.
Figure 8.7 Average capacity fading after 10th cycle as a function of discharge current for LiCoO₂ | hexanoyl chitosan-LiCF₃SO₃-EC-PC | MCMB cell.
Figure 8.8 (a) Before charging, (b) after complete charging and (c) during discharge.
Figure 8.9 Charge-discharge curves for (a) ideal and (b) real EDLC cell.
Figure 8.10 Ideal voltammogram and voltammogram showing pseudocapacitance.
Figure 8.11 Schematic of a fuel cell.
Figure 8.12 Schematic fuel cell performance (a) voltage and (b) power density vs. current density curves.
Figure 8.13 Structure of a DSSC. The MOs in the dye before assembly.
Figure 8.14 The working principle of a DSSC with I^–/I₃^– redox mediator.
Figure 8.15 Kinetics of a sensitized MO solar cell using I^–/I₃^– redox mediator.
Figure 8.16 The molecular structure of a N3 dye.
Figure 8.17 Some examples of organic dyes.
Figure 8.18 Some examples of natural dyes and their sources.
Figure 8.19 I-V curve of a DSSC.
Figure 8.20 Performance of DSSC cells: TiO₂ | phthaloyl chitosan-EC-DMF-TPAI | Pt.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Reaction scheme of PBI [14, 23]. An original scheme of PPA process in the literature is redrawn using ChemDraw in the figure.
Figure 9.2 SEM image of PBI membranes (a) PBI powder, (b) PBI–PA gel and (c) TEM micrograph of PBI–PA gel. Inset of Figure 9.2d shows the chemical structure of PBI membrane. SEM and TEM images are directly adopted from the literature [34].
Figure 9.3 Process flow diagram of PA-doped PBI membrane as described by Xiao et al. [33].
Figure 9.4 MWD curves reported by Li et al. for PBI membrane [18]. MWD is obtained using GPC size exclusion chromatography. Static light scattering combined with a refractive index detector is used to obtain the concentration signal. An original image of TGA in the literature is modified using Plot Digitizer in the figure [18].
Figure 9.5 TGA curve of PBI. The analysis was done with 10 mg of PBI at a ramp rate of 20 °C min^–1. An original image of TGA in the literature is modified using Plot Digitizer in the figure [39].
Figure 9.6 FTIR spectra of (a) PBI and (b) PBI gel in PA [34]. Original image is directly adopted from the literature [34].
Figure 9.7 The ³¹P NMRFTIR spectra of (a) PPA at 20 °C, (b) PPA at 140 °C, (c) PA-doped PBI at 20 °C and (d) PA-doped PBI at 140 °C. Original images from the literature are directly adopted in the figure [48].
Figure 9.8 (a) Conductivity of PA-doped PBI vs. water vapor activity; (b) Tensile strength and elongation at break of PBI as a function of polymer IV for PA-doped PBI. Tensile strength and elongation at break of PBI are presented as circle and square respectively in the figure. An original image from the literature is directly adopted in the figure [33].
Figure 9.9 Polarization curves of MEAs based on PA-doped PBI obtained at different temperatures, ambient pressures, 0% RH. The original image from the literature is directly adopted in the figure [57].

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Cellulose structure.
Figure 10.2 Chitin structure.
Figure 10.3 Transmission electron micrographs from dilute suspension of cellulose nanocrystals from (a) cotton (Reprinted with permission from [27]; Copyright (2008) Elsevier), (b) ramie (reproduced with permission from [28]; The Royal Society of Chemistry), (c) tunicine (Reprinted with permission from [29]; Copyright (2011) Wiley).
Figure 10.4 (a) SEM image of sisal MFC. (b) Optical microscopy image of sisal MFC (Reprinted with permission from [34]; Copyright (2009) American Chemical Society). (c) Gel-like appearance of a MFC water suspension (1 wt%). (d) Optical microscopy image of wood MFC. Reprinted with kind permission from Springer Science+Business Media [35].
Figure 10.5 TEM images of chitin nanofibers. Reprinted with permission from [50]; Copyright (2012) Elsevier.
Figure 10.6 Schematic representation of the preparation methods for natural fibers-based polymer membranes [61].
Figure 10.7 Plot of log (G’) vs. temperature, between 200 and 350 °K for polymer composites reinforced with 0, 1, 3 and 6% of tunicine whiskers. Reprinted with permission from [65]; Copyright (2003) Wiley.
Figure 10.8 Evolution of the Young’s modulus of the cellulosic whiskers film determined from tensile tests as a function of the aspect ratio of the constituting whiskers. Reprinted with permission from [66]; Copyright (2011) Elsevier.
Figure 10.9 Arrhenius plot of the ionic conductivity for composite polymer electrolytes containing 0 (black dots), 6 (white dots) and 10 wt% (black triangles) of tunicin whiskers. Adapted with permission from [103]; Copyright (2004) American Chemical Society.
Figure 10.10 SEM micrographs of the cryo-fractured surface of PEO nanocomposite membranes containing 6 wt% of cotton whiskers (a) and 6 wt% of sisal MFC (b). Reprinted with permission from Elsevier; Copyright (2010).
Figure 10.11 Left: Appearance of the UV-cured membrane containing 3 wt% of MFC after two hours of swelling in the liquid electrolyte. Inset: Membrane without MFC after swelling. Right: Arrhenius plot of ionic conductivity of the UV-cured membranes containing different amounts of MFC. Reprinted with permission from [75]; Copyright (2011) Elsevier.
Figure 10.12 Left: Arrhenius plot of the ionic conductivity of the solid polymer electrolytes reinforced with MFC. Right: Improvement of the mechanical properties of the membranes. Reprinted with kind permission from Springer Science+Business Media [35].
Figure 10.13 Left: SEM images of polymer electrolytes composed of (a) PEO + LiPF6 and (b) PEO + LiPF6 + chitin. Right: Interfacial resistance as a function of time of polymeric membranes. Reprinted with permission from [112]; Copyright (2011) Elsevier.
Figure 10.14 Left: Optical microscope analysis of the MFC dried network of fibers; (c) appearance of a 30 wt% MFC-based membrane; (d) a 30 wt% MFC-based membrane observed with an optical microscope. Right: Normalized light-to-electricity conversion efficiencies versus conservation time at 60 °C for DSSCs assembled with MFC-based membranes. Curve for the corresponding liquid cell is also reported. Reprinted with permission from [131]; Copyright (2014) Wiley.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Simplified pervaporation mechanism. Due to the fact that the diffusion is the limiting step, it is generally recommended to apply pervaporation to extract the minor component of a mixture.
Figure 11.2 Asymmetric structure of an industrial membrane.
Figure 11.3 Schematic performance of membranes versus their polymeric or inorganic nature and glassy or rubbery structure.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Schematic of the preparation of TiO₂-coated MWCNTs. (Adapted from [13] with permission from Elsevier).
Figure 12.2 Schematic of the preparation steps for PAA-g-MWCNT/PES nanocomposite membrane. (Adapted from [26] with permission from Elsevier)
Figure 12.3 Schematic of the preparation of TFN membrane by an improved process of interfacial polymerization of TEOA and TMC on the PSf supporting membrane. (Adapted from [34] with permission from Elsevier).
Figure 12.4 A schematic of the preparation process of TFN membrane embedded with poly(methyl methacrylate) hydrophobic modified multiwalled carbon nanotubes by interfacial polymerization. (Adapted from [35] with permission from Elsevier).
Figure 12.5 TEM images of colloidal nanoparticles obtained by (a) TEOS, (b) DETA, and (c) MPTMS precursor (Adapted from [56] with permission from Elsevier).
Figure 12.6 SEM images of untreated and modified NF2 membranes: (a) untreated (NF2), (b) DETA (D-NF2), (c) TEOS (T-NF2), and (d) MPTMS (M-NF2) (Adapted from [56] with permission from Elsevier).

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Principle of nanofiltration.
Figure 13.2 Solution-diffusion mechanism in NF.
Figure 13.3 Ion transport and rejection mechanism by NF membrane based on PSCF model.
Figure 13.4 Schematic of the phase inversion process for preparation of ultraporous PES substrate.
Figure 13.5 Flow diagram of the NF membrane preparation process.
Figure 13.6 Cross section, inner surface and outer surface of the cellulose acetate membrane [12].
Figure 13.7 Schematic nanofiltration set-up.
Figure 13.8 Effect of feed pressure on pure water flux in NF.
Figure 13.9a Effect of pressure on process flux for bulk drug industrial effluent [15].
Figure 13.9b Effect of pressure on fructose rejection [5].
Figure 13.10 Schematic representation of different configurations of (a) diamond and (b) ladder-type feed spacers used for simulation by Radu et al. [16].
Figure 13.11 Computational domain of NF spiral-wound membrane module.
Figure 13.12a Velocity (ms^–1) vectors at upper surface of the membrane.
Figure 13.12b Velocity (ms^–1) vectors on the spacers
Figure 13.12c Velocity (ms^–1) contours at 0.9*h_ch.
Figure 13.12d X-Shear stress contours on bottom wall of the module along the X-axis direction.
Figure 13.12e Pathline of velocity realizing from the top view on the bottom wall.
Figure 13.13 2D model development for different spacers used in nanofiltration process by Radu et al. [20].
Figure 13.14 Different ellipse and wing-shaped spacers used in simulation by Guillen et al. [21].
Figure 13.15 Concentration, velocity and pressure profiles inside FPA-150 membrane at 10 bar pressure [5].
Figure 13.16 Biofilm growth for NF membrane with different spacer configurations [20].
Figure 13.17 Process flow diagram of compact nanofiltration process for drinking water purification.
Figure 13.18 Installed compact pilot NF plant for drinking water purification.
Figure 13.19 Applications of membrane separation in whey processing as proposed by Lipnizki [25].
Figure 13.20a Retention of ions during nanofiltration of whey at 16 °C and 0.62 m/s flow rate [27].
Figure 13.20b Permeate flux during the concentration of whey by NF at 2.0 MPa and a feed flow rate of 0.6 m/s [27].
Figure 13.21 Lactose rejection with time [28].
Figure 13.22 Schematic diagram of a two-step UF/NF process for dairy wastewater treatment and utilization for bioenergy production by Luo et al. [30].
Figure 13.23 Membrane fouling in NF process with or without UF pretreatment when VRR is 5 [30].
Figure 13.24 Permeate flux of AFC80 nanofiltration membranes for two runs of pear and apple juices (P = 12 bar and T = 30 °C) [32].
Figure 13.25 Basic principle of membrane bioreactor.
Figure 13.26 Schematic representation of (a) aerobic and (b) anaerobic configuration of MBR.
Figure 13.27 NF-based MBR pilot plant for kitchen wastewater treatment of 500 L/h capacity.

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Summary of the established membrane separation technologies.
Table 2.2 Membrane polymer for UF and some characteristics.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Some of the prominent industrial applications of polymeric membranes for gaas separation [5, 9].
Table 3.2 The chronological trend of development of membrane materials for air separation [5].
Table 3.3 The specifications and properties of commercial hydrogen separation membranes [9].
Table 3.4 Main applications of polymeric membranes for vapor/gas separation [5].
Table 3.5 The physical properties of common gases and vapors [38].
Table 3.6 Dominant interactions present in sorption modes [40].
Table 3.7 The chemical structure of commercial polyimides used for gas and vapor separation [57].
Table 3.8 The chemical structures of selected perfluoropolymers [79].
Table 3.9 Alkane permeabilities of substituted polyacetylenes [83].

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Materials can cause membrane fouling.
Table 4.2 Summary of the recognized membrane separation technologies. (Adapted from [9, 21])
Table 4.3 Typical design flux and operating pressure for NF and RO membranes. (Adapted from [20])
Table 4.4 Basic differences between conventional MBR and HR-MBRs. (Adapted from [121])
Table 4.5 Characterization of different types of membrane modules.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Summarization of FCs [6].
Table 5.2 Comparison of themoset composite and thermoplastic composite materials.
Table 5.3 US-DOE technical target for the flow field plates [38].
Table 5.4 Nafion types.
Table 5.5 Comparison of Pt-based, modified Pt, and non-Pt catalysts.
Table 5.6 Comparison between LT-PEMFC and HT-PEMFC.
Table 5.7 Status and target of the PEMFC for the transportation application [58].
Table 5.8 Advantage and disadvantage of the PEMFC and DMFC.
Table 5.9 Companies for the portable sectors [11].
Table 5.10 Heat conductivity of individual components in the PEMFC [86].
Table 5.11 Summary of cooling strategies for the PEMFC [87].

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Equations to determine the B coefficient for each mass transfer mechanism.
Table 6.2 Equations describing heat transfer in each region of the membrane modules [43–45].
Table 6.3 DCMD permeate flux obtained for water desalination using commercial and commercial-modified membranes.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Summary of separation performance of various membranes for the separation of methanol-MTBE mixtures.
Table 7.2 Summary of separation performance of various membranes for the separation of ethanol-ETBE mixtures.
Table 7.3 Summary of separation performance of various membranes for the separation of ethanol-cyclohexane mixtures.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Chitosan- and chitosan-derivative-based electrolytes and their room temperature ionic conductivities.
Table 8.2 Methyl-cellulose-based polymer electrolytes and their room temperature ionic conductivities.
Table 8.3 Characteristics of lithium polymer batteries.
Table 8.4 Differences between a capacitor and battery [60–64].
Table 8.5 Examples of EDLC employing biopolymer electrolytes.
Table 8.6 Characteristics of the fuel cells.
Table 8.7 List of some examples of biopolymer electrolytes in PEMFC.
Table 8.8 The possible functional groups for R₁ and R₂.
Table 8.9 Anthocyanin dyes and their performance in DSSCs.
Table 8.10 Carotenoid dyes and their performance in DSSCs.
Table 8.11 Betalain dyes and their performance in DSSCs.
Table 8.12 Chlorophyll dyes and their performance in DSSCs.
Table 8.13 DSSC employing quasi-solid state polymer electrolyte.
Table 8.14. Effect of TPAI salt on the room temperature conductivity of phthaloyl chitosan-EC-DMF based polymer electrolyte.
Table 8.15 The photoelectrochemical parameters of the DSSC cells: TiO₂ | phthaloyl chitosan-EC-DMF-TPAI | Pt.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Structure and stability of several polybenzimidazoles [24, 27, 28].
Table 9.2 Solubility information for polybenzimidazoles.
Table 9.3 Conductivity of PA-doped PBI membranes and their composition.
Table 9.4 FTIR details of PA-doped PBI and pure PBI.
Table 9.5 Permeability of hydrogen and oxygen at different temperatures [55].
Table 9.6 Single cell PEMFC data of acid-doped PBI membranes.
Table 9.7 Research needs for PBI membranes.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Transport properties of MMM containing neat carbon particles.
Table 11.2 Transport properties of MMM containing functionalized carbon particles.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Reported mixed matrix NF membranes prepared by phase inversion technique.
Table 12.2 Reported TFN NF membranes prepared by interfacial polymerization technique.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 List of equipment and corresponding costs of NF system.
Table 13.2 Operation and maintenance cost of NF for surface water treatment.

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Cover design by Russell Richardson

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

ISBN 978-1-118-83178-6

Preface

Many recent research accomplishments in the area of polymer nanocomposite membrane materials are summarized in Nanostructured Polymer Membranes: Applications, including the state of the art and new challenges, membrane technology and applications, polymer membranes for gas and vapor separation, membranes for wastewater treatment, polymer electrolyte membrane and methanol fuel cell, polymer membranes for water desalination and treatment, polymeric pervaporation membranes for organic-organic separation, biopolymer electrolytes for energy devices, phosphoric acid-doped polybenzimidazole membranes as a promising electrolyte, membrane for high-temperature PEMFC, natural fibers in polymer membranes for energy applications, the potential interest in carbon nanoparticles for pervaporation polymeric membranes, mixed matrix membranes for nanofiltration application, and fundamentals, applications and future prospects of nanofiltration membrane technique. As the title indicates, various aspects of nanostructured polymer membranes and their applications are emphasized in this book. It is intended to serve as a “one-stop” reference resource for important research accomplishments in the area of nanostructured polymer membranes and their applications.

This book will be a very valuable reference source for university and college faculties, professionals, post-doctoral research fellows, senior graduate students, and R&D laboratory researchers working in the area of polymer nano-based membranes and their applications. The various chapters were contributed by prominent researchers from industry, academia and government/private research laboratories across the globe. The book is an up-to-date record on the major findings and observations in the field of nanostructured polymer membranes and their applications. Chapter 1, which is an introduction to nanostructured polymer membranes and their applications, gives an overview of the state of the art, new challenges and opportunities of nanostructured polymer membranes and their applications, along with a discussion of future trends in polymer membranes.

The following chapter lends structure to the previous introductory chapter on membrane technology and applications. It is devoted to the science and applications of all kinds of membrane separation processes, including reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, ultrafiltration, pervaporation, microfiltration, coupled and facilitated transport, membrane distillation, and zeolite and ceramic membranes. Also, the fundamental knowledge and principle of membrane technology and membrane types and modules are presented and the challenges and potential implications of developments for the future of membrane technology are discussed. Polymer membranes for gas and vapor separation are thoroughly explained in Chapter 3. This chapter provides an overview of gas and vapor separation of polymer-based nanomembranes. The authors discuss various topics such as its significance and prominent industrial applications, fundamentals and transport of gases and vapors in polymeric membranes, polymeric membrane materials for gas and vapor separations, strategies for molecular design and architecture of polymeric membranes, process modeling and simulation, and challenges and future directions. The next chapter mainly concentrates on membranes for wastewater treatment. It provides a brief overview of membrane-based processes for water reuse and environmental control in the treatment of industrial wastewaters. Applications involving the use of pressure-driven membrane operations, membrane bioreactor, as well as a combination of membrane operations in hybrid systems in the treatment of waste from different industries are analyzed and discussed. Polymer electrolyte membrane and methanol fuel cell technologies are explained in Chapter 5. This chapter summarizes the recent advances in proton exchange membrane fuel cell and direct methanol fuel cell technologies. It introduces two major polymer membrane-based fuel cells, proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs), followed by the working principles of these fuel cells and modeling and theory of polymer membrane-based fuel cells. Section 5.1 includes a historical introduction and classifications of fuel cells; Sections 5.2 and 5.3 present the basic principle and components in the PEMFC and DMFC, respectively; Sections 5.4 and 5.5 are about the systematic designs of the PEMFC and DMFC; and Section 5.6 explains the fundamentals of electrochemistry and the theoretical model of the PEMFC. Chapter 6 on polymer membranes for water desalination and treatment summarizes the recent progress in the fabrication and modification of MD membranes, as well as intrinsic aspects of the MD process such as mechanistic fundamentals, configurations and operating parameters. The chapter also offers a comprehensive outlook concerning the advances of this technology in water desalination and treatment.

Chapter 7 opens with a general overview on pervaporation and a brief description of its history. Then, the main requirements of polymeric membranes in terms of their hydrophobic/hydrophilic nature, crosslinking, swelling degree and thickness of selective layer are described with particular reference to organic-organic separations. Finally, three different case studies on the application of pervaporation in some of the most important organic-organic separations are reported and discussed. Chapter 8 on biopolymer electrolytes for energy devices explains many subtopics such as chitosan-based electrolyte membranes, methyl cellulose-based electrolyte membranes biopolymer electrolyte in lithium polymer batteries, biopolymer electrolyte in supercapacitors, polymer electrolyte in fuel cells, and biopolymer electrolytes in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). Chapter 9 discusses the phosphoric acid-doped polybenzimidazole membrane, which is a promising electrolyte membrane for high-temperature PEMFC. The authors of this chapter explain the synthesis of polybenzimidazole membranes and their characterization techniques such as molecular weight distribution, thermogravimetric analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, permeability, mechanical testing and fuel cell testing. In Chapter 10, natural nanofibers in polymer membranes for energy applications are explained by various works related to many topics such as natural fibers, polymer nanocomposite membranes based on natural fibers, applications of natural fibers nanocomposite membranes in the energy field, lithium batteries, dye-sensitized solar cells and other energy devices. This chapter also briefly introduces natural nanofibers and their production processes and proposes and overviews polymer nanocomposite membranes based on natural fibers, focusing on their application in the energy field, with a discussion of fundamental research in this area. Chapter 11 on the potential interest of carbon nanoparticles for pervaporation polymeric membranes is devoted to investigations of the influence of carbon fillers, such as pristine and functionalized carbon nanoparticles (e.g., graphene, graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, fullerene), on the pervaporation transport properties of different polymers whose mechanism transport is known to obey the solution-diffusion mechanism. When used as nanofillers in membranes’ networks, these carbon particles can be useful for significantly improving pervaporation performance. In Chapter 12 on mixed matrix membranes for nanofiltration application, the authors summarize the recent scientific and technological advances in the development of mixed matrix nanofiltration membranes. These membranes are classified according to their preparation method into: (1) asymmetric mixed matrix nanofiltration membranes prepared by phase inversion, (2) thin-film nanocomposite (TFN) nanofiltration membranes prepared by interfacial polymerization, and (3) surface coating containing inorganic materials. Applications of mixed matrix nanofiltration membranes are also briefly discussed. The final chapter reports on the fundamentals, applications and future prospects of the nanofiltration membrane technique. The chapter’s aim is to provide insight into several distinctive properties of nanofiltration (NF) from the perspective of pore radius as well as surface charge density, which signifies its uniqueness in several fields of applications. Beginning with core fundamentals and principles, recent advances in the synthesis and characterization procedure of NF membranes are thoroughly described. The fundamental transport mechanism in NF membranes is discussed through different models, including solution-diffusion, preferential sorption surface-capillary flow, Donnan equilibrium and dielectric exclusion theory.

The editors would like to express their sincere gratitude to all the contributors of this book, whose excellent support resulted in the successful completion of this venture. We are grateful to them for the commitment and sincerity they have shown towards their contributions. Without their enthusiasm and support, the compilation of this book would not have been possible. We would like to thank all the reviewers who have taken their valuable time to make critical comments on each chapter. We would also like to thank the publisher, John Wiley and Sons Ltd. and Scrivener Publishing, for recognizing the demand for such a book, realizing the increasing importance of the area of nanostructured polymer membrane applications, and starting a project on such a new topic, which has yet to be addressed by many other publishers.

Visakh. P. M
Olga Nazarenko
July 2016