Contents
Preface to the First Edition
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the Third Edition
Acknowledgments
PART 1 GENERAL CONCEPTS
CHAPTER 1 Introduction
WHY RESTRAINT
GENERAL CONCEPTS
WHEN TO RESTRAIN
HUMANE CONSIDERATIONS
DOMESTICATION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 2 Tools of Restraint
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESTRAINT
DIMINISHING SENSE PERCEPTIONS
CONFINEMENT
EXTENSION OF ARMS
PHYSICAL BARRIERS
PHYSICAL FORCE
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
REFERENCE
CHAPTER 3 Rope Work
CONSTRUCTION OF A ROPE6–8
BASIC ROPE WORK
SPLICING ROPE2,4,6
HANKING A ROPE
KNOTS2,3,4
THROWING OR TOSSING A ROPE1,5
ROPE HALTER
BLOCK AND TACKLE USAGE
ROPE AND CORDAGE TERMS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 4 Thermoregulation
PHYSIOLOGY
THERMOREGULATORY MEDICAL PROBLEMS
DEFINITION OF TERMS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 5 Understanding Behavior for Restraint Purposes
WHY BE CONCERNED ABOUT ACQUIRING OBSERVATIONAL SKILLS?
NORMAL BEHAVIOR
COMMUNICATION
HIERARCHICAL STATUS
BEHAVIORAL CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH RESTRAINT
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 6 Training for Restraint Procedures
OVERVIEW OF ANIMAL TRAINING
TRAINING FOR VETERINARY PROCEDURES
TRAINING FOR TRANSPORTING
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 7 Stress
BODY RESPONSE TO STRESS STIMULATION
OTHER ENDOCRINE RESPONSES TO STRESS REPRODUCTION
METABOLISM
DIAGNOSIS OF STRESS
PATHOLOGY
SUMMATION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 8 Animal Welfare Concerns During Restraint
DEFINITION OF TERMS
WHAT DOES ANIMAL RIGHTS ACTIVISM HAVE TO DO WITH RESTRAINT?
WHAT ARE ZOOS DOING TO PROMOTE ANIMAL WELL-BEING?
FARM ANIMAL WELFARE
GOVERNMENTAL REGULATION OF ANIMAL WELFARE
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 9 Medical Problems During Restraint
PREPARATION FOR RESTRAINT PROCEDURES
TRAUMA
HEAD AND NECK INJURIES
LIMB INJURIES
DAMAGE TO FEATHERS AND SCALES
METABOLIC CONDITIONS
CLINICAL SIGNS
POST-RESTRAINT COMPLICATIONS
SPECIAL PROBLEMS
HUMAN INJURY DURING RESTRAINT
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
PART 2 DOMESTIC ANIMALS
CHAPTER 10 Horses, Donkeys, Mules
CLASSIFICATION
DANGER POTENTIAL
PHYSICAL RESTRAINT1,2,5,10,11
TRANSPORT
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT3,4,6,8,10,12
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 11 Cattle and Other Domestic Bovids
CLASSIFICATION
DANGER POTENTIAL
PHYSICAL RESTRAINT1,3,7,8
TRANSPORT
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT5
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 12 Sheep and Goats
CLASSIFICATION
SHEEP
GOATS
TRANSPORT
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT2,3
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 13 Swine
CLASSIFICATION
DANGER POTENTIAL
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND BEHAVIOR
PHYSICAL RESTRAINT1-7
TRANSPORT
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT2-7
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 14 Camelids
DANGER POTENTIAL
BEHAVIOR
PHYSICAL RESTRAINT
SPECIAL HANDLING
TRANSPORTING1,3,9,10
BLOOD COLLECTION
SEDATION AND CHEMICAL IMMOBILIZATION4,5
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 15 Dogs
CLASSIFICATION
DANGER POTENTIAL
BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS
PHYSICAL RESTRAINT1,6,7
TRANSPORT
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 16 Cats
CLASSIFICATION
DANGER POTENTIAL
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND BEHAVIOR
PHYSICAL RESTRAINT1,6,7
TRANSPORT
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 17 Laboratory Rodents and Rabbits
CLASSIFICATION
DANGER POTENTIAL
BEHAVIOR
PHYSICAL RESTRAINT
Rabbits
TRANSPORT
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 18 Poultry and Waterfowl
CLASSIFICATION
DANGER POTENTIAL
BEHAVIOR AND PHYSIOLOGY
PHYSICAL RESTRAINT
RELEASING BIRDS
TRANSPORT
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT
REFERENCES
PART 3 WILD ANIMALS
CHAPTER 19 Delivery Systems1,3,4–15
ORAL
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 20 Chemical Restraint
THE IDEAL RESTRAINT DRUG19
INDIVIDUAL DRUG DESCRIPTION1,5,8–11,21,27–33,39–44
CARFENTANIL (WILDNIL)30–32,34,40,42,43
THIAFENTANIL (A 3080)9,30,41–45
FENTANYL CITRATE35,40
BUTORPHANOL TARTRATE (TORBUGESIC)35
KETAMINE HYDROCHLORIDE (KETASET, KETALAR, VETALAR, KETAJECT, KETANEST)1,3,9,12,17,40–43
TILETAMINE HYDROCHLORIDE/ZOLAZEPAM HYDROCHLORIDE (TELAZOL, TILAZOL)40–43
XYLAZINE (ROMPUN) 1,34,41–43
DETOMIDINE HYDROCHLORIDE (DOMORSEDAN)41–43
GALLAMINE (FLAXEDIL)41–43
NALTREXONE HCL
NALOXENE HYDROCHLORIDE (NARCAN)16,19,23
TOLAZOLINE HCL (TOLAZINE)
YOHIMBINE (ANTAGONIL)
ATIPAMEZOLE28,34,35,40,42,43
FLUMAZENIL
NEOSTIGMINE BROMIDE AND N. METHYLSULFATE42,43
ACEPROMAZINE MALEATE (ACETYLPROMAZINE MALEATE)
AZAPERONE (STRESNIL)40
DIAZEPAM (VALIUM, TRANIMAL, TRANIMUL)
MIDAZOLAM HCL (VERSED)
PERPHENAZINE ENANTHATE (TRILAFON)8,11,16,40–43
HALOPERIDOL (HALDOL, SERENACE)23
ATROPINE SULFATE
MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS
EUTHANASIA
Physical Methods
ASSISTED RESPIRATION
LEGAL ASPECTS OF USING IMMOBILIZING DRUGS IN THE UNITED STATES2
DEFINITION OF TERMS
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 21 Monotremes and Marsupials
CLASSIFICATION (NUMBERS IN PARENTHESIS DENOTE NUMBER OF KNOWN SPECIES)
MONOTREMES
MARSUPIALS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 22 Small Mammals
CLASSIFICATION (NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES DENOTE NUMBER OF KNOWN SPECIES)
INSECTIVORA1,2,7,11,15,17
DERMOPTERA—FLYING LEMURS2
CHIROPTERA—BATS6,12,20–22,27
ANATOMY AND BEHAVIOR
EDENTATA—ANTEATERS, SLOTHS, ARMADILLOS1,8–10,19,20,25
PHOLIDOTA PANGOLINS16,24
LAGOMORPHA—RABBITS, HARES, PIKAS14
RODENTIA
TUBULIDENTATA16,24
HYRACOIDEA5
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 23 Carnivores
CLASSIFICATION (NUMBERS INPARENTHESES DENOTE NUMBER OF KNOWN SPECIES)35
DANGER POTENTIAL6,10,22,33,39,40,44
CANIDAE—DOG, FOX, WOLF3,4,13,14,18,19,29–32
URSIDAE—BEARS7,16,17,20,35–37,43
PROCYONIDAE—RACCOON, KINKAJOU, COATIMUNDI8,9,15,27
MUSTELIDAE—SKUNK, WEASEL, OTTER1,12,21,27,40–42
VIVERRIDAE—MONGOOSE, CIVET CAT8
HYAENIDAE—HYENAS, AARDWOLF36,38
FELIDAE—CATS5,20,26,33,34,39,44
Transport
Chemical Restraint
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 24 Nonhuman Primates
CLASSIFICATION (NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES DENOTE NUMBER OF KNOWN SPECIES)
DANGER POTENTIAL
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND BEHAVIOR
PHYSICAL RESTRAINT6,7,9,15–17
TRANSPORT3
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT1,2,4–8,10,12–14
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 25 Marine Mammals
CLASSIFICATION (NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES DENOTE NUMBER OF KNOWN SPECIES)
DANGER POTENTIAL26,27
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
PHYSICAL RESTRAINT
Sirenians—Manatees, Dugongs
Pinnipeds—Seals, Sea Lions, Walrus5,7,10–12,16,24,28
TRANSPORT1,19,33
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT7,9,13–16,18,20,21,24
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 26 Elephants
CLASSIFICATION
UNIQUE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
BEHAVIOR
DANGER POTENTIAL
PHYSICAL RESTRAINT19,20
COLLECTION OF BLOOD SAMPLES
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT3,9,14,17–19,22,31,37–40,44,48,50,54,63
TRANSPORT10,11,15,47,49
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 27 Other Megavertebrates (Hoofed Stock)
CLASSIFICATION
PERISSODACTYLA (ORDER) (ODD-TOED UNGULATES)
ARTIODACTYLA (ORDER) (TWO-TOED UNGULATES)
ARTIODACTYLA (ORDER) (TWO-TOED UNGULATES)
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 28 Hoofed Stock (Other than the Megavertebrates)
CLASSIFICATION
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
ARTIODACTYLA (ORDER)
ARTIODACTYLA (ORDER)
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 29 Birds
CLASSIFICATION
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
DANGER POTENTIAL
PHYSICAL RESTRAINT3,9
TRANSPORT
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT3,9,16
PENGUINS
RATITES (OSTRICH, RHEA, EMU, CASSOWARY, KIWI)
WATER BIRDS5,11,17
SHORE AND GULL-LIKE BIRDS11
RAPTORS7,10,13
GALLIFORM BIRDS
LONG-BILLED, LONG-LEGGED BIRDS19,20
LARGE-BILLED BIRDS
PIGEONS AND DOVES
PSITTACINE BIRDS—PARROTS, PARAKEETS, LORIES
HUMMINGBIRDS AND SWIFTS
SONG, PERCHING, AND MISCELLANEOUS BIRDS3,9,16
Physical Restraint
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 30 Reptiles
CLASSIFICATION
CROCODILIANS
Miscellaneous Clinical Procedures
CHELONIANS
LIZARDS
SNAKES
Chemical Restraint1,2,7–9,13,14,16
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 31 Amphibians and Fish
CLASSIFICATION
AMPHIBIANS
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT3,7,8,10,13
FISH
REFERENCES
Appendices
Index
Murray E. Fowler, DVM, is Professor Emeritus of Zoological Medicine at the School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA. Most recently, he has been a consultant of Ringling Brothers, Barnum and Bailey’s Circus. His previous publications include Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, Fifth Edition (2003); Restraint and Handling of Wild and Domestic Animals (Blackwell Publishing, 1995); Medicine and Surgery of South American Camelids (Blackwell Publishing, 1998); and Biology, Medicine and Surgery of South American Wild Animals (Blackwell Publishing, 2001).
Edition first published 2008
© 2008 Murray E. Fowler
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Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Fowler, Murray E.
Restraint and handling of wild and domestic animals/Murray E. Fowler. – 3rd
ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-8138-1432-2 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-8138-1432-4 (alk. paper)
1. Animal immobilization. I. Title.
QL62.5.F68 2008
636.08′3–dc22
2008012654
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Disclaimer
The contents of this work are intended to further general scientific research, understanding, and discussion only and are not intended and should not be relied upon as recommending or promoting a specific method, diagnosis, or treatment by practitioners for any particular patient. The publisher and the author make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of fitness for a particular purpose. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of medicines, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each medicine, equipment, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. Readers should consult with a specialist where appropriate. The fact that an organization or Website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or Website may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that Internet Websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. No warranty may be created or extended by any promotional statements for this work. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any damages arising herefrom.
PREFACE to the First Edition
The original intent in this book was to deal only with wild animal restraint. However, upon deliberation, it was realized that fundamental principles of restraint apply to both domestic and wild animals, so it was decided to include both groups to present a more comprehensive picture of the subject.
The objectives of this book are to collect under one cover discussions and illustrations of the principles of animal restraint and handling and to describe some restraint practices for diverse species of vertebrate wild and domestic animals. Heretofore no single source has offered information for handling such diverse animals as a 2.5-g hummingbird and an elephant weighing 5,000–6,000 kg. It is hoped that this book will satisfy that need for all who handle animals—particularly veterinarians; animal caretakers; wildlife biologists; wildlife rehabilitators; personnel of zoos, research, and humane society facilities; and any others who deal with animals.
Government regulatory agencies require humane treatment and proper care and handling of all animals in captivity. It is legally necessary for those maintaining wildlife to provide adequate restraint facilities and personnel trained in satisfactory handling techniques to prevent or minimize injuries.
Restraint and handling techniques for domestic animals have long been well documented and described. Although the most recent text1 was written in 1954, the principles outlined in that excellent publication are still valid.
Wild animal restraint and handling techniques are not as well known nor as widely publicized except in those notorious instances when inhumane and torturous methods used in capture and transport attract the attention of the news media. Some people feel that all wildlife should be returned to the native habitat and left to live and die undisturbed by human beings. This attitude is naive in this day and time. Wild animals have become an integral part of society and will continually be handled. It behooves us to know and use techniques safe for both animal and handler.
The need for understanding restraint principles, particularly for wild animals, is exemplified by the statement of an experienced zoo veterinarian in a recent publication: “It is all very well to plan an operation on a tiger, but the problem that arises is how to catch the beast, and once having caught it, how safely to secure it. Nor is this difficulty restricted to the tiger, it applies in a lesser or greater degree to every type of wild animal in captivity. Not one of them will cooperate in your well-meaning efforts to help them, and no such thing as gratitude exists in their primitive makeup.”2
This book is not, nor is it meant to be, an exhaustive encyclopedia on animal restraint. The author is well aware that certain individual researchers or biologists may favor one or more techniques or special tools not mentioned here. It is impossible for any individual to acquire a personal knowledge of all possible combinations of restraint and handling procedures for every species or even for groups of species. However, the techniques presented have proved successful in the hands of experienced individuals and should serve as guides for anyone faced with similar problems.
It is only through an enlightened understanding of restraint principles that humane handling with the least amount of stress will be possible for any animal. It is hoped that by bringing all this information together in one source, more people will be able to share in saving wild animals for posterity.
1. Leahy, J.R., and Barrow, P. 1954. Animal Restraint. Ithaca, N.Y.: Comstock.
2. Graham-Jones, O. 1973. First Catch Your Tiger. New York: Taplinger.
PREFACE to the Second Edition
The concluding paragraph of the preface to the first edition states, “It is only through an enlightened understanding of restraint principles that humane handling with the least amount of stress will be possible for any animal. It is hoped that by bringing all this information together in one source, more people will be able to share in the saving of wild animals for posterity.”
I have been gratified at the reception of the first edition of Restraint and Handling of Wild and Domestic Animals, by animal health technicians, zookeepers, animal owners, wildlife rehabilitators, animal husbandry students, and veterinarians. In the nearly 20 years that have elapsed since the first edition was written, some described procedures and techniques have changed but slightly. Many aspects of physical restraint remain valid. In some other aspects, there have been material changes.
One of the more significant changes in general restraint has been the greater attention paid to avoiding and minimizing stress during restraint. I would like to believe that the first edition contributed to a greater understanding of the absolute need to minimize stress. The design of livestock handling yards, chutes, and loading ramps has become a sophisticated art. Public sentiments demand, even more vociferously than two decades ago, humane care in all aspects of maintaining animals in captivity.
Chemical restraint had been coming to the fore in the decade prior to publication of the first edition, but the two intervening decades have seen the development and marketing of many new drugs. Investigations into the pharmacodynamics of drugs now allow more logical combination of certain drugs, which are used more frequently to capitalize on the desirable effects of each while counteracting undesirable effects. Extensive clinical usage has demonstrated the desirability, and in many cases the necessity, of using drug combinations. There is still no single drug that is the drug of choice for immobilizing all species of animals. Furthermore, no individual has the time or opportunity to deal with more than a few drugs and species of animals, hence the need for sharing.
Now, more than ever, persons contemplating chemical restraint of unfamiliar animals must take the time to communicate with experienced restrainers. Even a review of the literature may fail to provide the most current techniques being used, particularly for sensitive species like giraffe or hippopotamuses. Currently available restraint drugs are discussed at length in this edition. Furthermore, promising drugs that are currently unavailable in the United States but are being used effectively in other countries have been included, with the expectation that they may soon become available here.
South African veterinarians and biologists are leaders in advancing the art of chemical restraint, particularly in free-ranging African mammals, and the literature from South Africa has been freely used to augment the experiences from North America and other countries of the world.
Effective drugs used and methods for chemical restraint of animal groups have been included in this volume. No pretense is made that all suitable procedures have been described. The techniques included have been used by me or by respected colleagues. The literature citations bring chemical restraint up to the present.
Some sections of this volume remain virtually unchanged because the methods described previously are still valid. Other sections have been modified extensively in keeping with new developments in the field, particularly in regard to the increased importance played by private owners and how they handle their animals (camelids, ratites).
No one begins a restraint procedure with the expressed purpose of failing, but failure is the result for many who fail to apply basic principles that determine success. In all facets of my life, I have utilized a formula (5 Ps) for success that has a direct application to restraint. Perhaps it may help others focus on important issues.
Success = Plan + Prepare + Practice + Produce + Persist
You may try to eliminate some aspects of the formula or shortcut the process, but I feel that this formula provides the most efficient and effective pathway for success. There must be a plan. Too often there is no plan, rather the idea seems to be “Let’s just go do it.” The questions remain, who is to do what and when? Preparation is essential. In preparation, the questions to be answered are: Are all the tools and equipment ready? Has transportation been arranged? Have emergency procedures been planned and necessary equipment provided? What of alternate plans if the situation suddenly changes? If the animal is to be darted, when was the last time target practice was held? Every possible complication or problem should be anticipated. Then the restrainer must carry out the procedure as planned (produce). When the procedure has been completed, the whole process should be evaluated. Setbacks and failures must be offset by persistence in applying fundamental principles.
PREFACE to the Third Edition
The third edition is illustrated in color. Modern technology allows printing in color without materially adding to the cost. New chapters added to the third edition include animal behavior, animal welfare, training for restraint procedures, camelidae, and megavertebrates. Several sections have been given chapter status or moved to be consistent with reorganization of sections. For instance, camelidae has been given chapter status and moved to the domestic animal section, and chemical restraint has been moved to the nondomestic animal section. The methods of delivery of chemical restraint agents have been given chapter status.
The chemical restraint chapter has been expanded and new chemical restraint agents added. Each chapter in the wild animal section has a discussion of chemical immobilization for that group of animals, including tables and current references.
Animal welfare must be a constant concern of those who restrain animals. The well-being of an animal should be given the highest priority. Although modern chemical restraint agents have made it possible to accomplish many procedures more efficiently and safely, take time to contemplate all of the effects that may impinge on the animal. Will the animal’s condition be improved with the intended procedure? Are there alternative methods to accomplish the same goal? Are all of the needed equipment and supplies to work safely and efficiently ready? Are restraint personnel adequately trained and experienced to deal with any contingency?
Government regulations require that animals receive humane care at all times. It is too bad that regulations must direct us to do what should be our moral obligation and desire to accomplish.
Animals may become overstimulated with an epinephrine rush during restraint procedures. They may be inclined to, and capable of, feats of athleticism beyond imagination. I have seen a giant eland Taurotragus oryx jump, from a standing start, an 8-foot fence that had easily contained the animal for years. Furthermore, an American bison Bison bison cow climbed a 6-foot fence to avoid capture. A Grevy zebra Equus grevyi mare jumped out of a moated enclosure to avoid contact with a newly introduced stallion to the enclosure. Consider all aspects of the environment in which the restraint procedure is to be performed. Maintenance of facilities and equipment must be routine.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I acknowledge the many individuals (colleagues, animal owners, keepers, zoo administrators) and institutions that have contributed to my experiences with procedures and methods for handling animals. I have utilized all of the procedures discussed and illustrated in this volume over a professional lifespan of 5 decades. There may be other methods that accomplish the same purposes, but these work in my hands and I can recommend them.
Once again I am indebted to my wife Audrey for her unfailing support and encouragement. Her copy reading skills were vital to the success of this project. I lovingly dedicate this edition to her.
PART 1
General Concepts
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Restraint varies from confinement in an unnatural enclosure to complete restriction of muscular activity or immobilization (hypokinesia).4 Both physical and chemical restraint are now practiced. Anciently only physical restraint was utilized. Just when man learned of chemical immobilization (poison arrows) is not known, but it antedates recorded history.
The physiological effects of restricted movement have been studied. For centuries, extended bed rest for ill or postsurgical human patients was practiced—to the detriment of the patient. Now it is known that many deleterious effects result from this type of immobility. Solitary confinement is known to be extremely devastating for a human being. Similar confinement of social animals produces severe psychological stress.4
Restraint practices evolved with the domestication of animals for food, fiber, labor, sport, and companionship.2,4,6,7,13 Domestication necessitated special husbandry practices. As people began to minister to animals’ needs, they found it necessary to restrict activity by placing them in enclosures. If animals resisted when wounds were treated or medication administered, it was necessary to further restrain them. Trial and error combined with the shared experiences of fellow human beings ultimately produced satisfactory practices.2,3
A person who undertakes to restrict an animal’s activity or restrain the animal is assuming a responsibility that should not be considered lightly.4,10 Each restraint incident has some effect on the behavior, life, or other activities of an animal. From a humane and moral standpoint, the minimum amount of restraint consistent with accomplishing the task should be used. This should become a maxim for persons who must restrain animals.
Each time it is proposed to restrain an animal, the following questions should first be asked: Why must this animal be restrained? What procedure will produce the greatest gain with the least hazard? When will it be most desirable to restrain the animal? Who is the most qualified to accomplish the task in the least amount of time and with the least stress to the animal? What location would be best for the planned restraint procedure?
WHY RESTRAINT
Everyone must agree that domestic animals require transporting, medicating, and handling. Some contend that all wild animals should be free ranging, without human interference. This philosophy seems naive in the present time.
Wild animals kept in captivity require special husbandry practices. They must be transported, housed, and fed. If they become ill, they must be examined and treated.
Free-ranging animals may have to be translocated, as was necessary when the Kariba dam was built in Southern Rhodesia. The translocation of free-ranging wild animals has become a common method of wild animal management for reducing overpopulation or building a population in a new location. The reintroduction of captive-bred wild animals to a former native habitat or a revitalized habitat is now routine. All of these animals must undergo significant screening, which in turn requires restraint, transport, and eventual release. Diseases in wildlife populations must be monitored, since some have far-reaching consequences for the health of domestic livestock and human beings. Many wild populations are managed. As far as wild animals are concerned, any captive situation involves some form of restraint.4
GENERAL CONCEPTS
Four basic factors should be considered when selecting a restraint technique: (1) Will it be safe for the person who must handle the animal? (2) Does it provide maximum safety for the animal? (3) Will it be possible to accomplish the intended procedure by utilizing the suggested restraint method? (4) Can constant observation and attention be given the animal following restraint until it has fully recovered from the physical or chemical effects? Once these four factors are evaluated, a suitable technique can be selected.4
Many wild animals can inflict serious, if not fatal, injury. The first concern when dealing with wild animals should be the safety of human beings. To think otherwise is foolhardy, and those who grandstand or show off by manipulating dangerous animals without benefit of proper restraint may injure themselves or bystanders. Those who own or have administrative responsibility for wild animals must recognize that the animal, no matter how valuable, cannot be handled in such a way as to jeopardize the safety of those who must work around it. Techniques are known that when properly used can safeguard both animal and operator.
It is desirable to build proper facilities into areas where wild animals must be kept so that these handling procedures can be safely carried out. It is foolish to pay thousands of dollars for a zoo specimen if facilities are not available in which to handle or restrain the animal for prophylactic measures or treatment of disease or injury.
Certain wildlife populations have become so depleted they are near extinction. We should not practice on these species. It is not economically feasible, nor is there sufficient animal life for each person to gain through personal experience the intimate knowledge of various behavioral patterns and characteristics to enable them to develop expertise in the successful use of restraint procedures. Therefore we must learn from the experiences of others who have dealt extensively with one species or family of animals and utilize their knowledge of the more successful techniques.
To be successful in working with animals, one must understand their behavioral characteristics and the aspects of their psychological makeup that will allow for provision of their best interests. Successful restraint operators must understand and have a working acquaintance with the tools of restraint. They must understand the use of voice, manual restraint, and chemical restraint. Special restraint devices and their application should be thoroughly understood. These are explained in the text, with a major emphasis on physical restraint methods. It has been my experience that an operator who really understands what can be done with physical restraint can build upon this information to carry out more successful chemical immobilization—if it is indicated.
The general principles of chemical restraint will be outlined and specific tables presented to give current usage of chemical restraint agents in various classes of animals. There is a marked swing toward the use of chemical restraint when working with wild animals. Pharmaceutical companies are carrying out research on newer and better restraint agents. This has led to the marketing of new products on a continuing basis. This ongoing activity may lead to the false assumption that applying physical restraint techniques is no longer necessary. Nothing could be further from the truth.
Just as the indiscriminate use of antibiotics may cloud test results and cause the inefficient clinician to make an inaccurate diagnosis, indiscriminate chemical restraint can likewise produce clinical aberrations and is often hazardous to the animal.
Chemical restraint is an extremely important adjunct to physical restraint practices, particularly in regard to wildlife. However, it is far from universally ideal and cannot replace special squeeze cages and other specially arranged facilities for wild animals, which allow them to be approached without imposing undue stress or hazard. Those who work extensively with wild animals know that no single chemical or group of chemical restraint agents fulfills all of the safety and efficacy requirements to qualify for universal application.
The decision whether to use chemical or physical restraint is based on the skill of the handlers, facilities available, and the psychological and physical needs of the species to be restrained. No formula can be given. If in doubt, someone who has had experience should be consulted.
WHEN TO RESTRAIN
One does not always have a choice of times when restraint should be carried out. Emergencies must be dealt with immediately. In the majority of instances, however, planning can be done.
Environmental Considerations
Thermoregulation is a critical factor in many restraint procedures. Hyperthermia and, more rarely, hypothermia are common sequelae. Heat is always generated with muscle activity. During hotter months of the year, select a time of day when ambient temperatures are moderate. Special cooling mechanisms such as fans may be required. Place restrained animals in the shade to avoid radiant heat gain. Conversely, use the sun’s heat if the weather is cool. Avoid handling when the humidity is 70–90%. Cooling is difficult under such circumstances.
Take advantage of light and dark. Diurnal animals may best be handled at night when they are less able to visually accommodate. Nocturnal species may be more easily handled under bright lights.
Behavioral Aspects
An animal’s response to restraint varies with the stage of life.4,5,6 A tiger cub grasped by the loose skin at the back of the neck will curl up just as a domestic kitten does. Such a reaction is not forthcoming with adults.
A female in estrus or with offspring at her side reacts differently than at other times. Males near conspecific estrus females may be aggressive.
Male cervids (deer, elk, caribou) go into rut in the fall of the year. By this time the antlers are stripped of velvet and are no longer sensitive. Now the antlers are weapons. Although a handler may safely enter an enclosure of cervids during the spring or summer, it may be hazardous to do so during the rutting season.
Hierarchical Status
Most social animals establish a pecking order. A person trying to catch one animal in an enclosure may be attacked by other members of the group. Dominant male primates are especially prone to guard their band. I have seen similar responses in domestic swine and Malayan otters.
Animals removed from a hierarchical group for too long a time may not be accepted back into the group. At the very least they will have lost a favored position and must win a place in the order.
Infants removed from the dam and kept separated for more than a few hours may be rejected when reunited. Species vary greatly in this behavioral response. An infant Philippine macaque was accepted back by the mother after a 3-month separation. Some species may reject the infant if it has human scent on it. A further hazard of hours-long separation occurs if the dam has engorged mammary glands. The hungry infant may overeat and suffer from indigestion.
Health Status
Recently transported animals are poor restraint risks. Transporting in crates, trucks, and planes is a stressful event. The longer the journey, the more stress. The method of handling and type of accommodations used in transport are also important. If possible, allow the animal time to acclimate to a new environment before carrying out additional restraint.
Sick domestic animals are routinely handled for examination and treatment. It may be more difficult to evaluate the health status of wild animals. Standard techniques of measuring body temperature or evaluating heart and respiratory rate may yield meaningless results because of excitement. Even though a captive wild animal may exhibit some signs of a disease, it may be prudent not to handle it. The following incidents illustrate two such cases.
A nine-year-old child wrote a letter to the president of the United States following a visit to a small zoo. She told him the yak had long hair and long toenails and asked why the zoo didn’t give it a haircut and trim its toenails. The letter was answered in an admirable way by a zoo director who explained that the long hair was normal and that it might be more dangerous to catch the yak than to let it be slightly uncomfortable with the long toenails.
In another situation a bison had dermatitis. A decision was made to catch it to check the lesion. The animal died of overexertion during the process.
Deciding when to intervene is difficult. Clinical experience may be the governing factor.
Territoriality
Domestic animals differ in response to handling depending on where they are. A veterinarian attempting to handle a dog in the owner’s home will find a more defiant individual than if the same dog is placed in the strange environment of a hospital examining room. Cattle, horses, swine, and sheep likewise respond differently in their own corral or pen than if in a strange place. An animal can sometimes establish its territory rather quickly. A dog placed in a hospital cage may defend it as “home” within a few hours. After removal from the cage the dog may become more docile.
Many wild animals are highly territorial. In order to work on such animals they must be moved to a new enclosure.
HUMANE CONSIDERATIONS
It is incumbent upon a person who takes the responsibility of manipulating an animal’s life to be concerned for its feelings, the infliction of pain, and the psychological upsets that may occur from such manipulation.1,2,3,10,11 One must, however, be able to be objective about such manipulations and realize that the manipulation is for the best interests of the animal. Some feel that to restrict an animal’s activity in any way is immoral and inhumane. At the opposite extreme is the person who has a total disregard for the life of animals.
Pain is a natural phenomenon that assists an animal to remove itself from danger in response to noxious influences. No animal is exempt from experiencing pain.1 Pain is relative; individual persons and animals experience pain in varying degrees in response to the same stimulus. Pain can become so intense, however, that an animal may die from shock induced by pain. We should not minimize the effect of pain, nor should we overemphasize it. Some persons cannot cope with pain in themselves, their children, or their pets.
Working as a medical technologist while a student in veterinary school, I frequently saw mothers bring children into the laboratory for a blood count and tell them, “This isn’t going to hurt.” Nonsense, it does hurt. Why not face the fact and learn to cope with it? We all experience numerous painful stimuli every day. We live through it and so do animals.
Sensitive people do not like to inflict pain. Veterinarians and others who manipulate animals are morally and ethically obligated to minimize pain in the animals they handle. The animal under restraint is incapable of escaping from pain. The handler must perceive the feelings of the animal and take appropriate steps to alleviate pain.1,4
Some of the tools used in restraint practices involve the infliction of mild pain to divert the animal’s attention from other manipulative procedures. The equine twitch is an example. The chain is placed over the nose of the horse and twisted down, causing a certain degree of pain. If the horse is preoccupied with the mild pain of the nose, nonpainful manipulative procedures can be carried out elsewhere on the body.
Every restraint procedure should be preceded by an evaluation as to whether or not the procedure will result in the greatest good for that animal. Animals have feelings. People should not look upon animals as machines to be manipulated at will.
It is interesting to peruse a 1912 book on the restraint of domestic animals.12 One can not read the book without feeling that some of the procedures recommended would cause considerable unpleasantness to the animal and in some cases be inhumane. However, some of the techniques used 96 years ago for physical restraint are similar to those used currently, although modern considerations for behavior and training have diminished the necessity of “brute force.”
Albert Schweitzer was one of the foremost proponents of the concept of reverence for life.10 Human beings may have supreme power over other forms of life on this earth, but unless they recognize a dependence upon other life forms and have an appreciation for their position in the scheme of things, they will fail to develop an attitude that will result in humane care for animals under their charge.11 Persons who seek to work in animal restraint would do well to read some of the literature of the humane movement so they might become more empathetic in their approach to procedures that involve the infliction of pain and understand the emotional trauma associated with restraint.1–7
Plan each restraint episode in detail. Anticipate potential problems. Provide equipment and facilities commensurate with the procedure. Time is crucial—get the job done fast. Follow through with observation and care until the animal is back to normal. If you lack experience in handling a given species, ask for help from someone who does have the experience.
Remember: (1) Safety to the handler. (2) Safety to the animal. (3) Will it do the job? (4) Get the animal back to normal.
DOMESTICATION
Approximately 35 of the nearly 50,000 species of vertebrates have adapted to humans’ needs for food, fiber, work, sport, and beauty, and are considered to be domesticated (Tables 1.1, 1.2). All but three or four species were living in harmony with humans before the time of recorded history.3,6,13
TABLE 1.1. Domestic mammals
TABLE 1.2. Domestic birds
Domestication is an evolutionary process that involves a gradual (thousands of years) change in the gene pool of a species to allow adaptation to an artificial environment. Domestic animals must cope with buildings, fences, crowding, confinement, lack of privacy, changed photoperiodicity, altered climatic conditions, and different food.
Genetic alteration during the evolutionary process took place by selection for specific characteristics that were economically or esthetically pleasing to humans. Docile animals were selected over aggressive individuals. This may require only a single gene mutation. Other economically important characteristics include higher fertility, rapid growth, efficient food conversion, higher milk production, and disease resistance. Farmers have often selected polled cattle over horned breeds to minimize injury.
There was definite selection to reduce or eliminate undesirable wild characteristics such as territoriality, intra-specific dominance, elaborate food identification and gathering mechanisms, intricate courtship behavior, and fear of humans. This constant selection yielded animals that are much easier to handle. They tolerate the presence of humans without a flight response. If physically restrained they rarely fight to the death, as do some wild species.
Mankind has been able to change the morphology and behavior of some domestic animals to the degree that it is difficult to determine what their wild counterpart might be like. Many breeds of livestock and companion animals have been produced. An overview, with excellent illustrations of breeds of livestock, is found in Sambraus.8 He lists 55 breeds of cattle, 41 of sheep, 17 of goats, 62 of horses, 4 of donkeys and 15 of swine. There are more than 100 breeds of dogs and cats.
Asian elephants Elephas maximus were considered to be a domestic animal in years past. Surely the elephant has been in the service of humans for millennia, but it nevertheless lacks some of the criteria for domestication. Currently the elephant is classified as being in domesticity.
Two insect species are considered domestic animals, those being the European honeybee Apis melifera and the silkworm Bombyx mori.
REFERENCES
1. Caras, R. 1970. Death As a Way of Life. Boston: Little, Brown.
2. Carson, G. 1972. Men, Beasts and Gods. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
3. Dembeck, H. 1965. Animals and Men. Garden City, NY: Natural History Press. (Trans. from German)
4. Fowler, M.E. 1995. Restraint and Handling of Wild and Domestic Animals. Second Ed. Ames, Iowa State University Press.
5. Fox, M.W., ed. 1968. The influence of domestication upon behavior of animals. In: Abnormal Behavior in Animals, pp. 64–75. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.
6. Hafez, E.S.F. 1968. Adaptation of Domestic Animals, pp. 38–45. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
7. Hume, C.W. 1957. The Status of Animals in the Christian Religion. London: United Federation for Animal Welfare.
8. Sambraus, H.H. 1992. An Atlas of Livestock Breeds. London, Wolfe.
9. Scheffer, V.B. 1974. A Voice for Wildlife. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
10. Schweitzer, A. 1965. The Teaching of Reverence for Life. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
11. Thoreau, H.D. 1965. Walden. New York: Harper & Row.
12. White, G.R. 1912. Restraint of Domestic Animals, Second Ed. Nashville, TN, Williams Printing.
13. Zeuner, F.E. 1963. The History of Domestic Animals. London: Hutchins.