Table of Contents
Cover
Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics
Title page
Copyright page
Dedication
Acknowledgments
Contributors
Introduction
Part I: Overview and Foundations
Introduction
1 Bilingualism and Multilingualism: Some Central Concepts
Introduction
A Multilingual World
Classifying Multilingualism
Dealing with Multilingual Realities
The Definition and Measurement of Personal Fluencies
The Bilingual or Multilingual Individual
Perspectives on Theory and Practice
Language and Identity
2 Conceptual and Methodological Issues in Bilingualism and Multilingualism Research
The Fundamentals for Bilingualism and Multilingualism
Research Traditions and Methodological Perspectives
Towards a Transdisciplinarity: Challenges and Future Directions
Part II: Neurological and Psychological Aspects of Bilingualism and Multilingualism
Introduction
The Neurology of Bilingualism and Multilingualism
3 Bilingual Aphasia: Theoretical and Clinical Considerations
Introduction
Issues in the Case Literature on Bilingual or Polyglot Aphasias
Methodological Concerns in the Bilingual Aphasia Case Literature
Models of Bilingual Processing that Address Bilingual Aphasia
Conclusions
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Approaches to Bilingualism, Multilingualism, and Second-Language Acquisition
4 The Bilingual Child
Introduction
Speech Perception
Speech Production
Word Learning
Morphology, Syntax, Language Differentiation, and Cross-Linguistic Influence
Cognitive Correlates of Bilingualism
More to Bilingual Acquisition: Similarities, Differences, Challenges, and Opportunities
5 Bilingualism/Multilingualism and Second-Language Acquisition
Introduction
Definitions of Bilinguals and Multilinguals
The Complexity of Understanding Bilingualism and Multilingualism
Conceptualizing and Assessing Language Proficiency
Age and L2 Acquisition
The Interaction between L1 and L2 (or Additional Nonnative Languages)
Conclusion
6 Multilingualism: New Perspectives on Syntactic Development
Introduction
Key Issues in First- and Second-Language Acquisition
Multilingual Acquisition
Theoretical Background
Background Studies
Research Focus
Enhancement Study
Discussion
Conclusions
7 Bilingualism and the Heritage Language Speaker
Some Variables that Characterize Bilinguals
Heritage Language Speakers
Linguistic Competence in the Heritage Language
From First and Primary Language to Secondary Language
Is the Heritage Language Like a Second Language?
Outstanding Issues
Bilingual and Multilingual Language Use: Knowledge, Comprehension, and Production
8 Two Linguistic Systems in Contact: Grammar, Phonology, and Lexicon
Introduction
Morpho-syntax
Phonology and Lexicon
New Research Methodologies
Concluding Remarks
9 The Comprehension of Words and Sentences in Two Languages
The Comprehension of Words in Two Languages
The Comprehension of Sentences in Two Languages
Conclusions
10 An Appraisal of the Bilingual Language Production System: Quantitatively or Qualitatively Different from Monolinguals?
Introduction
Bilingual Production at the Pre-lexical Level
Bilingual Production at the Lexical Level
Post-lexical Processing
Summary and Conclusions
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Bilingualism and Multilingualism: Memory, Cognition, and Emotion
11 Bilingual Memory
Introduction
Early Theoretical Formulations
The Bilingual Coordinate–Compound Distinction
One- vs. Two-Memory Systems
The Processes View of Bilingual Memory
The Bilingual Dual Coding Model
Hierarchical Models of Bilingual Memory
Bilingual Memory Representations at the Word-Type Level
Bilingual Lexical Access
Conclusions
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
12 Bilingualism and Emotion: Implications for Mental Health
Introduction
Bilingualism and Emotion: How Bilinguals Use Language to Express Their Emotions
Bilingual Autobiographical Memory
Code-Switching
Therapy with Bilinguals: How Differences in Language Expression Affect Therapy
Use of Interpreters
Cultural Issues and Culture-specific Strategies in the Treatment of Bilinguals
Conclusions and Directions for Future Research
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Bilingual’s and Multilingual’s Repertoire: Code-Mixing, Code-Switching, and Communication Accommodation
13 Code-Switching and Grammatical Theory
Early Research
Constraints on Code-Switching, Constraints on Syntax
The Emergence of Theoretical Approaches to Code-Switching
A Minimalist Approach to Code-Switching
Conclusions
14 Sign Language–Spoken Language Bilingualism and the Derivation of Bimodally Mixed Sentences
Bimodal Bilingualism
Availability and Employment of Bimodal Mixing Options
A Minimalist Program of Inquiry into Language Mixing
The Products of Bimodal Mixing
Derivation of Bimodally Mixed Sentences
Conclusion
15 Social and Psychological Factors in Language Mixing
Introduction
Four Questions
Conclusions
16 Accommodating Multilinguality
CAT: A Brief Overview of Some Basic Concepts and Processes
A Social Psychologically-Oriented Model of Bilingual and Multilingual Accommodation
Epilogue
17 Bilingualism and Gesture
Introduction
The Connection between Gestures, Speech, and Language
Bilingual Children and Gestures
Bilingual Adults and Gestures
Bi-modal bilingualism
Conclusions
Part III: Societal Bilingualism/Multilingualism and its Effects
Introduction
Language Contact, Maintenance, and Endangerment
18 The Bilingual and Multilingual Community
Introduction
Types of bilingual and multilingual speech communities
Diglossia and Domains of Language Use in Bilingual Communities
The Changing Face of Multilingualism in the Modern World and the Decline of Small Speech Communities
Public policy issues: language planning for multilingual speech communities
Conclusion
19 Language Maintenance, Language Shift, and Reversing Language Shift
Introduction: Perspective: American and International
Language Shift as the Societal Norm
Making the World Safe (or at Least Safer) for Cultural Democracy
Can Language Shift Be Reversed?
Concluding and Summary Observations
20 Linguistic Imperialism and Endangered Languages
Introduction: Connecting Linguistic Imperialism with Endangered Languages
The State of the World’s Endangered Languages
Linguistic Imperialism Past and Present
Diverse Approaches to Language Dominance: Methodological and Theoretical Challenges
Encouraging Examples of Change that Strengthen Endangered Languages and Multilingualism
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
21 Multilingualism, Indigenization, and Creolization
Indigenization
Creolization
Conclusion
22 Multilingualism and Family Welfare
Introduction
Factors that Affect Multilingual Family Well-Being
Strategies for Promoting Multilingual Family Welfare
Conclusion
Bilingualism and Multilingualism: The Media, Education, Literacy, and the Law
23 Bilingualism and Multilingualism in the Global Media and Advertising
Globalization and International Advertising: Key Issues
Approaches to Advertising Discourse
Typology of the Global Spread of English and Language-mixing
Bilingualism through non-Roman scripts
Multilingualism and Structural Domains
Globalization and the Marketization of English
English and the Mystique Factor
Language Change: The Interaction of Outer and Expanding Circles
Linguistic Accommodation and Advertiser’s Perception
Conclusion
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
24 Bilingual Education
Brief History of Bilingual Education
Overview of Bilingual Education Research
Methodological and Theoretical Issues
Problem Areas
Directions for Future Work
25 The Impact of Bilingualism on Language and Literacy Development
Metalinguistic Concepts
Literacy
The Bilingual Connection
26 Bilingualism and Writing Systems
Basic Concepts and Terminology
Reading and Writing More Than One Writing System
Beyond Cross-Orthographic Effects: How Biliterates Differ from Monoliterates
Writing Systems and Metalinguistic Awareness in Bilinguals
Conclusion
Nonlinguistic Cognitive Consequences of Biliteracy
Conclusions
27 Multilingualism and Forensic Linguistics
Introduction
Bilingualism/Multilingualism and Forensic Linguistics: Definition and Scope
Language Knowledge and Use: Tapping Unconscious and Conscious Dimensions
Methodology
The Nature of Evidence: DNA and Fingerprints vs. Linguistic Fingerprints
The Bi-/Multilingual Mind and Language Use: Psycholinguistic Perspectives
Conclusion
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Part IV: Global Perspectives and Challenges: Case Studies
Introduction
28 Bilingualism and Multilingualism in North America
Introduction
Borderlands of Language and Nationality
Bilinguals and their Communities
The Future of American Plurilingualism
Research on North American Bilingualism
29 Bilingualism in Latin America
Introduction
Sociolinguistic Characteristics
Bilingualism
30 Bilingualism in Europe
Introduction
Europe, a Continent of Sustained Migrations
Europe, a Continent of Linguistically Powerful States and Less Powerful Minorities
Recent Trends in Education and Communication in Europe
General Conclusions and Open Questions
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
31 Turkish as an Immigrant Language in Europe
History and Current Situation
Language Choice, Maintenance and Shift
Acquisition
Code-Switching
Language Change
Conclusion
ABBREVIATIONS USED
32 Multilingualism in Southern Africa
Introduction
Multilingualism, Language Status, and Language Use
Multilingualism and Language Policy
Multilingualism and Language Practice in Post-Apartheid South Africa
Multilingualism and the Indices of Language Policy Failure in South Africa
Multilingualism and Consequences of Language Policy Failure in South Africa
Multilingualism, Language Policy Failure, and Language Shift
Conclusion
33 Multilingualism in Greater China and the Chinese Language Diaspora
Introduction
China
Hong Kong
Macao
Taiwan
The Chinese Language Diaspora
Conclusion
34 Bilingualism and Multilingualism in South Asia
Introduction
A Linguistic Profile of South Asia
Sources and Processes of Multilingualism
Salient Features of SA Multilingualism
Conclusion
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
35 Multilingualism and Language Renewal in Ex-Soviet Central Asia
Introduction
Territory, Ethnos, and the Sociolinguistic Setting
Languages and Language Status
Language Promotion in the Wake of the 1989–1990 Language Laws
New Patterns of Language Behavior
Concluding Remarks: A New Linguistic Era
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
36 Bilingualism/Multilingualism in the Middle East and North Africa: A Focus on Cross-National and Diglossic Bilingualism/Multilingualism
Introduction
Bilingualism and Multilingualism in the MENA
Summary and Conclusion
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Index
Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics
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This second edition first published 2013
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism / edited by Tej K. Bhatia and William C. Ritchie. – Second edition.
pages cm
Extensive revision of: The handbook of bilingualism. 2004.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4443-3490-6
1. Bilingualism. 2. Multilingualism. I. Bhatia, Tej K. II. Ritchie, William C. III. Handbook of bilingualism.
P115.H365 2012
404'.2–dc23
2012010708
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To the memory of the thirty-five Syracuse University students who lost their lives in the terror bombing of Pan American Airways flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, on December 21, 1988, and to all other innocent victims of terrorism.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful first and foremost to the contributors, whose cooperation in putting this work together was nothing short of remarkable. Our heartfelt thanks are also due to a number of people at Blackwell including particularly Danielle Descoteaux, the Acquisitions Editor in Linguistics, Julia Kirk, our Project Editor, and Tessa Hanford, Project Manager, for their unstinting patience and encouragement.
We are also grateful to our teachers and colleagues, Yamuna and Braj Kachru, Barbara Lust, James Gair, K. Machida, Rajeshwari Pandharipande, Hans Hock, Meena and S. N. Sridhar who have deeply influenced our work. The volume also benefited immeasurably from the advice and counsel of a number of valued colleagues: Virginia Valian, Jyotsna Vaid, Loraine Obler, Judith Kroll, François Grosjean, and John Edwards.
For Bhatia: The D.A.V school system (India) is particularly worthy of his deepest appreciation for imparting a commendable academic training and providing much-needed global and multicultural vision during his formative years in India.
Our families – Shobha, Kevin, Kanika, and Ankit; Laurie, Jane, Peter, and Marnie – have supported us immensely with their love and affection; no words can express our deepest appreciation to them.
Finally, we are grateful to Dr. Ben Ware, Vice President of Research and Computing at Syracuse University (for assistance with the first edition of this work) and the College of Arts and Science at Syracuse, George M. Langford, Dean, for their support of this project, particularly in the form of a Research Leave for Ritchie, so he could devote full time to the project. In addition, we wish to thank Senior Associate Dean Gerald Greenberg for his support. This work has also benefited from the support of the Syracuse University Humanities Center in the form of a grant to finance a symposium held in the fall of 2009 at Syracuse entitled ‘The Bilingual Mind.’ We express our deep gratitude to Gregg Lambert, Director of the Center and PI of the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Grant for the Mellon Central New York Humanities Corridor for this support.
Contributors
Jeanette Altarriba is a Professor of Psychology at the University at Albany, State University of New York where she directs the Cognition and Language Laboratory. Her research interests include bilingualism, second-language acquisition, emotion, and the interaction between language, perception, and memory. She has published numerous scientific research articles and books on these topics and is currently co-editing a volume on bilingual memory and language. Currently, she also serves as Chair of the Department of Communication, at the University at Albany.
Ad Backus studied Linguistics at Tilburg University in Holland, where he received his Ph.D. in 1996. He has held research fellowships from the Netherlands Science Foundation and the Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences and is now an Associate Professor at Tilburg University. His work is mostly on Turkish, language contact, and cognitive linguistics.
Benedetta Bassetti is a Lecturer at the University of York. She is interested in bilingualism and biliteracy, including second-language reading and the effects of orthography on metalinguistic awareness and phonology in second-language learners and bilinguals. She co-edited the volume Second Language Writing Systems (with Vivian Cook, 2005) and is founding co-editor of the journal Writing Systems Research.
Gerald P. Berent is a Professor at the National Technical Institute for the Deaf, Rochester Institute of Technology, New York. He conducts second-language research on deaf learners’ acquisition of spoken-language grammatical, lexical, and semantic-pragmatic knowledge. He also conducts research on acquisitional parallels between deaf learners and hearing second-language learners of English, on bimodal bilingualism, and on English language teaching methodologies.
Éva Berkes studied theoretical linguistics and language acquisition at the Ortega y Gasset Graduate Institute (Madrid) and received her Ph.D. from the Complutense University of Madrid in 2002. She is currently a Lecturer at the University of Applied Sciences Burgenland, Austria. Her research interests concern multilingualism, syntactic development, and representation focusing on Hungarian, English, and German.
Tej K. Bhatia is Professor of Linguistics and Director of South Asian Languages at Syracuse University. He is a recipient of the Chancellor’s Citation Award for Excellence in Research. He has published a number of books, articles and book chapters in the areas of bilingualism, multiculturalism, media discourse, socio- and psycholinguistics, and the structure and typology of English and South Asian languages. Publications include Colloquial Urdu: The Complete Course for Beginners (2000), Colloquial Hindi: The Complete Course for Beginners, 2nd Edition (2007), Advertising and Marketing in Rural India, 2nd Edition (2007), and The New Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (co-edited with William C. Ritchie, 2009).
Ellen Bialystok is Distinguished Research Professor of Psychology at York University. Her research investigates language and cognitive development in children and cognitive change across the lifespan focusing on the effect of bilingualism on these developments. Her recent work has extended to patient studies and neuroimaging methods to understand how bilingualism modifies cognitive behavior. She has published numerous research articles, book chapters, and books, and is the recipient of several major awards, including the 2010 Killam Prize for Outstanding Contribution to the Social Sciences.
Jeffrey M. Brown received his Ph.D. in Psychology from Texas A&M International University (TAMIU) in 1996. He is a tenured Associate Professor of Psychology and currently serves as the Dean of Graduate Studies and Research at TAMIU. He currently oversees over 25 different graduate programs in four colleges, with a total graduate enrolment of over 1,000 students. He also oversees the Lamar Bruni Vergara Education Fund, which annually distributes over $1,000,000 in scholarship and assistantship funds to support graduate education at TAMIU. Additionally, he supervises the operation of the Office Research and Sponsored Projects, a support unit that assists administrators, faculty, and staff. He has also published in the areas of eyewitness memory, bilingual language processing, and the tip-of-the-tongue phenomena, to name a few.
Yuko Goto Butler is an Associate Professor of Educational Linguistics in the Graduate School of Education at the University of Pennsylvania, where she is also Director of the Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) Program. Her research interests include language assessment and second and bilingual language learning among children.
Shyamala Chengappa is a Professor of Language Pathology and Head of the Department of Speech-Language Pathology at the All India Institute of Speech and Hearing, Mysore. Her areas of interest are child and adult language disorders and bi-/multilingualism with larger work on autism spectrum disorders and aphasia in multilinguals. Her books include Simultaneous Acquisition of Two Languages (1988, with M.S. Thirumalai), Language Disorders in Children (2010), Bilingual Aphasia (editor, 2010) and An Introductory Handbook on Autism (2011).
Albert Costa attended the Ph.D. program ‘Cognitive Science and Language’ at the Universitat de Barcelona where he received his Ph.D. in Psychology in 1997. From 1998 to 1999 he was a postdoctoral fellow at the Brain and Cognitive Sciences department, MIT. From 1999 to 2000, he was a postdoctoral researcher at the Cognitive Neuropsychology Laboratory, Harvard University. In 2001, he moved to the Cognitive Neuroscience department at the International School for Advanced Studies in Trieste. From 2002 to 2005 he was a research fellow at the University of Barcelona where he became an Associate Professor in the Department of Psychology in 2006. Since 2008 he has been a Research Professor at ICREA-Universitat Pompeu Fabra in Barcelona. His research is focused on the cognitive mechanisms and representations involved in the production of speech, both in monolingual and bilingual contexts.
Paola E. Dussias is Associate Professor of Spanish, Linguistics, and Psychology and Associate Director of the Center for Language Science at Pennsylvania State University. Her research takes a cross-disciplinary approach to bilingual sentence processing. Using a variety of behavioral methods, ranging from off-line questionnaires to eye-tracking methods during reading and spoken language comprehension, she examines the way in which second-language readers and listeners negotiate the presence of two languages in a single mind. Her work, which has been supported by grants from the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health, has appeared in journals such as Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, the International Journal of Bilingualism, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Second Language Research, as well as in a number of edited volumes. Together with Janet van Hell, Ping Li, and Judith Kroll, Dussias is a co-PI on a PIRE grant (Partnerships for International Research and Education) from the National Science Foundation to develop an international research network and program of training to enable language scientists at all levels (undergraduate, graduate, and postdoctoral) and early career faculty to pursue research abroad on the science of bilingualism.
John Edwards received a Ph.D. (in Psychology) from McGill University in 1974. After working as a Research Fellow at the Educational Research Centre, St Patrick’s College, Dublin (now affiliated with Dublin City University), he moved to Nova Scotia, where he is Professor of Psychology at St. Francis Xavier University. His research interests are in language, identity, and the many ramifications of their relationship. He is on the editorial boards of a dozen international language journals, and is editor of the Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development and the Multilingual Matters book series, which now comprises about 150 titles. He has authored nine books and a tenth, Sociolinguistics (Oxford University Press), is forthcoming. He is a member of several psychological and linguistic societies, as well as scholarly organizations for the study of ethnicity and nationalism. He is a fellow of the British Psychological Society, the Canadian Psychological Association, and the Royal Society of Canada.
Anna María Escobar works at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Her areas of research, publication, and teaching are on contact linguistics and bilingualism, with a focus on Spanish–Quechua contact and Andean sociolinguistics, and on language variation and change, with a focus on grammaticalization and semantic change in Spanish.
Joshua A. Fishman is Distinguished University Research Professor of Social Sciences, Emeritus at Yeshiva University, Albert Einstein College of Medicine. He is credited with being the founder of the field of sociology of language or macrosociolinguistics, and has made significant contributions to the fields of language and ethnicity, language planning, bilingualism and bilingual education, Yiddish, and medical anthropology. He is a prolific author with over 1,000 publications that include over 85 books and over 900 articles and chapters in books. Among his seminal contributions are: Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity (Vols. I and II); Do Not Leave Your Language Alone (2006); Can Threatened Languages be Saved? (2001); and Bilingual Education: An International Sociological Perspective (1976). He has been honored many times around the world and in 2004 received the Linguapax Prize.
Ian FitzPatrick conducted his Ph.D. research on lexical interactions in nonnative speech comprehension at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics and Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour. From January 2010 to June 2011 FitzPatrick worked as a postdoctoral researcher at the Department of Technology and Information of the University Pompeu Fabra in Barcelona. As of July 2011, FitzPatrick is working as a postdoctoral researcher at the Heinrich Heine University in Düsseldorf in collaboration with the Donders Institute.
Suzanne Flynn is a Professor of Linguistics and Language Acquisition at MIT. Her research focuses on the acquisition of syntax by both children and adults in bilingual, second-, and third-language acquisition contexts. More recently, her work has focused on the neural representation of the multilingual brain. She also conducts research on language impairment and early onset of Alzheimer’s disease.
Howard Giles is Professor of Communication at the University of California, Santa Barbara. He is founding editor and co-editor of the Journal of Language and Social Psychology and the Journal of Asian Pacific Communication. He was past President of the International Communication Association and the International Association of Language and Social Psychology. His research interests encompass intergroup communication in intergenerational, police–civilian, and other settings.
Marianne Gullberg is Professor of Psycholinguistics and Director of the Humanities Laboratory at Lund University. Her research targets adult second-language acquisition and bilingualism, and the production and comprehension of gestures. She led a research group on multilingual and multimodal language processing at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, the Netherlands, 2002–9, applying linguistic, psycholinguistic, and neurocognitive perspectives, and also founded the Nijmegen Gesture Centre. She has published extensively on second-language acquisition, bilingualism and gestures, and has also edited a series of special issues and volumes on these topics including a volume of the Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics (2012). She also serves as an editor for three international journals – as associate editor for both Language Learning and Language, Interaction, and Acquisition, and as information editor for Gesture – and has served as Vice-President of the European Association of Second Language Research (EUROSLA).
Roberto R. Heredia is Professor of Psychology in the Department of Psychology and Communication at Texas A&M International University (TAMIU), and founder of the Cognitive Science Laboratory, and Cognitive Science Research Group. Roberto’s major interests are in bilingual lexical access at the sentence level and figurative language processing. He served as Chair of the Department of Behavioral Sciences for two years. He is currently Director and Principal Investigator of the Graduate Retention Enhancement at the TAMIU (GREAT) Program, funded by a multi-million dollar grant from the U.S. Department of Education Title V Promoting Postbaccalaureate Opportunities for Hispanic Americans. He is currently collaborating on three projects: Understanding Bilingual Memory: Theory and Applications (Springer); Bilingual Figurative Language Processing (Cambridge University Press); and Methods in Bilingual Reading Comprehension Research (Springer).
Elizabeth Ijalba is an Assistant Professor in Linguistics and Communication Disorders at Queens College, CUNY. She teaches courses on language acquisition with a focus on bilingualism. Her research interests are on reading difficulties and their relationship to second-language learning. Her current research focuses on training parents who speak a language other than English to develop early literacy in the home-language with their children with language impairment. She has presented widely at national and international venues on topics associated with bilingualism, dyslexia, and aphasia.
Nkonko M. Kamwangamalu is Professor of Linguistics in the Department of English at Howard University, Washington, DC. He is polity editor for the series ‘Current Issues in Language Planning’; author of the monograph The Language Planning Situation in South Africa; and of numerous refereed articles on topics in language planning, code-switching, multilingualism, World Englishes, and African linguistics.
Judith F. Kroll is Distinguished Professor of Psychology, Linguistics, and Women’s Studies and Director of the Center for Language Science at Pennsylvania State University. Together with Annette de Groot, she co-edited Tutorials in Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Perspectives (1997) and the Handbook of Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Approaches (2005). The research that she and her students conduct concerns the acquisition, comprehension, and production of two languages during second-language learning and in proficient bilingual performance. Their work, using behavioral and neurocognitive methods, is supported by grants from the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health. She was one of the founding organizers of Women in Cognitive Science, a group developed to promote the advancement of women in the cognitive sciences and supported by the National Science Foundation. Together with Janet van Hell, Ping Li, and Paola Dussias, Kroll is a co-PI on a PIRE grant (Partnerships for International Research and Education) from the National Science Foundation to develop an international research network and program of training to enable language scientists at all levels (undergraduate, graduate, and postdoctoral) and early career faculty to pursue research abroad on the science of bilingualism.
Sherman Lee is an Assistant Professor at Hong Kong Shue Yan University. She obtained her Ph.D. in Hong Kong for research examining language shift among the Hakka population, and her B.A. (Manchester) and M.Phil. (Cambridge) from the UK in the fields of linguistics and computer speech. Her research and teaching interests include sociolinguistics, bilingualism, discourse analysis, English for academic purposes (EAP), and research methods.
David C. S. Li obtained his B.A. in Hong Kong, M.A. in France, and Ph.D. in Germany. Being a native speaker of Cantonese, he developed a keen interest in foreign language learning from a very young age. His research interests are mainly related to social aspects of language use in multilingual settings. He has published in World Englishes on ‘Hong Kong English’, code-switching in Hong Kong and Taiwan, and EFL learners’ learning difficulties and error correction strategies.
William F. Mackey is the author of 20 books and some 200 articles on bilingualism, language education, geolinguistics, and language policy. He was Senior Lecturer (1948–51) at the University of London Institute of Education and the Founding Director of the International Centre for Research on Bilingualism in Laval University (Canada), where he is currently Emeritus Professor.
Jeff MacSwan is a Professor of Education and Linguistics (by courtesy) at the University of Maryland. His research focuses on the linguistic study of bilingualism and code-switching, on the role of language in theories of academic achievement differences among language minority students, and on education policy related to English language learners in U.S. schools. He is editor of the International Multilingual Research Journal, and currently serves on several editorial boards. He is the author of over 50 publications. Examples of his work appear in Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, Lingua, Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, Teachers College Record, Education Policy Analysis Archives, and in edited collections. He has served as a visiting scholar at UCLA, MIT, UC Santa Barbara, and the University of Hamburg.
Ines Martinovic received her Bachelor of Science degree in Physics in 2009 from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. She is currently pursuing her master’s and doctoral degrees in Cognitive Psychology at the University at Albany, State University of New York. She is interested in emotion, bilingualism, and memory and is currently investigating how survival-based processing affects memory in bilingual populations.
Silvina Montrul is Professor and Head of the Department of Spanish, Italian and Portuguese and Professor of Linguistics at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, where she is also Director of the University Language Academy for Children and of the Second Language Acquisition and Bilingualism Laboratory. She is co-editor of the journal Second Language Research. Her research focuses on linguistic and psycholinguistic approaches to adult second-language acquisition and bilingualism, in particular syntax, semantics, and morphology. She has expertise in language loss and retention in minority language-speaking bilinguals, or heritage speakers. She is author of The Acquisition of Spanish (2004), Incomplete Acquisition in Bilingualism (2008), and El Bilingüismo en el mundo hispanohablante [Bilingualism in the Spanish-Speaking World] (2012).
Pieter Muysken is Academy Professor of Linguistics at Radboud University Nijmegen (the Netherlands), having previously taught at Amsterdam and Leiden. He has carried out research and fieldwork in the Andes, Curacao, and the Netherlands. Recent books include Bilingual Speech: A Typology of Code-mixing (2000), The Languages of the Andes (with Wilhelm Adelaar, 2004), Functional Categories (2008), and Lenguas de Bolivia I–IV (with E. I. Crevels, 2009–11). His current research is concentrated in the Languages in Contact Group in the Centre for Language Studies, Radboud University Nijmegen, where he is studying the effect of language contact at four time scales. He is also collaborating with Marianne Gullberg on the interaction of linguistic and processing models for code-switching.
Loraine K. Obler is a Distinguished Professor in the Ph.D. Programs in Speech-Language-Hearing Sciences and Linguistics at the City University of New York Graduate Center. Her research has focused on bilingual aphasia, cross-language study of agrammatism, language changes in healthy aging, and talented and challenged second-language learning. Her books include The Bilingual Brain: Neuropsychological and Neurolinguistic Aspects of Bilingualism (with Martin Albert) and Language and the Brain (with Kris Gjerlow).
Anne Pauwels is Professor of Sociolinguistics and Dean of the Faculty of Languages and Cultures at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. Her research deals with the social and sociolinguistic aspects of language and communication, with particular attention to multilingual and transnational settings. Her research foci include multilingualism, language maintenance/shift, language policy in relation to language learning in schools and universities, as well as various aspects of the relationship between gender and language. Her most recent book publications include Language and Communication: Diversity and Change (2007), Maintaining Minority Languages in a Transnational Context (2007) and Boys and Language Learning (2008).
Robert Phillipson is British, with degrees from Cambridge, Leeds, and Amsterdam. He worked in four countries for the British Council before emigrating to Denmark in 1973. His current research interests are the use of English worldwide, and multilingualism at university level. He is a Professor Emeritus at Copenhagen Business School.
William C. Ritchie is Associate Professor of Linguistics at Syracuse University, where he teaches courses in general linguistics and second-language acquisition. His publications include an edited volume entitled Second Language Acquisition Research: Issues and Implications (1978). He has co-edited four handbooks with Tej K. Bhatia, including the Handbook of Child Language Acquisition (1999).
Suzanne Romaine has been Merton Professor of English Language at the University of Oxford since 1984. She has published numerous books and articles on linguistic diversity, multilingualism, language death, language revitalization, language change and contact. She was a member of the UNESCO Expert Group that produced its position paper on Education in a Multilingual World (2003), and also wrote the background paper on Languages and Cultural Identities for UNESCO’s report Investing in Cultural Diversity and Intercultural Dialogue (2009).
Judith Rosenhouse specializes in Arabic dialectology but has also worked in many other linguistic fields (e.g., phonetics). She has published over 100 scientific articles on Arabic, Hebrew, and other languages. Her books include The Bedouin Arabic Dialects: General Problems and a Close Analysis of North Israel Bedouin Dialects (1984), and Medical Communication in Colloquial Arabic (1989), which won the New Israel Fund Prize. She was awarded the Svend Smith Award for Applied Phonetics by ISPhS (2004). After retirement (2005) from the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology as Head of Department, she has been pursuing her research interests and working with SWANTECH (Sound Waves Analysis and Technologies Ltd.) in linguistic consultancy.
Elin Runnqvist is currently finishing her Ph.D. research on bilingual language control and bilingual speech production disadvantages within the program ‘Cognitive Science and Language’ at the Universitat de Barcelona.
Itesh Sachdev was born and brought up in Kenya, completed secondary and undergraduate education in the UK (Psychology, University of Bristol), and doctoral training in Social Psychology in Canada (McMaster University, Ontario). He then taught in Applied Linguistics at Birkbeck College, University of London, and is now Professor of Language and Communication at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS, University of London), where he has also been Director of the SOAS-UCL Centre for Excellence in Teaching and Learning ′Languages of the Wider World′. He has served as President of the British Association for Canadian Studies, and is the current President of the International Association for Language and Social Psychology. He has published widely in the social psychology of language and intergroup relations, having conducted research with various ethnolinguistic groups including those in/from Bolivia, Canada, France, Hong Kong, India, Japan, Taiwan, Thailand, Tunisia, and the UK.
Birgit N. Schlyter is Associate Professor and Head of Forum for Central Asian Studies at the University of Stockholm. She is a Lecturer in Turkish, Uzbek, Central Asian Linguistics, and Central Asian Cultural History. She has published works on modern Turkish and is at present conducting research on language development and language policies in the Central Asian region. Her works include Case Marking Semantics in Turkish (Ph.D. dissertation), Stockholm, 1985, ‘Turkish semantics revisited’, in H. Boeschoten and L. Verhoeven (eds.), Turkish Linguistics Today (1991); Return to the Silk Routes: Current Scandinavian Research on Central Asia (co-edited, 1999); and an article on the language situation in Turkey and Turkish language research in An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society (2006).
Ludovica Serratrice’s research interests are in the acquisition of syntax, pragmatics, and semantics in monolingual and bilingual children. Her work investigates children’s understanding and use of referential expressions in pre-school and school-aged children and the role of priming in the acquisition of subordinate clauses.
Jeff Siegel is Adjunct Professor in Linguistics at the University of New England in Australia. His main areas of research concern the processes involved in the development of contact languages, and the use of such languages in formal education. He has worked specifically on Melanesian Pidgin, Hawai‘i Creole, Pidgin Fijian, and Pidgin Hindustani. His most recent books are The Emergence of Pidgin and Creole Languages (2008) and Second Dialect Acquisition (2010).
Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, bilingual from birth, is Finnish, with doctoral degrees from Helsinki and Roskilde. Her research interests are multilingual mother-tongue-based education, genocide and crimes against humanity in education, linguistic human rights, and the relationship between biodiversity and linguistic and cultural diversity.
Kristof Strijkers conducted his Ph.D. research on the time course of lexical selection in object naming within the program ‘Cognitive Science and Language’ at the Universitat de Barcelona. Currently he is a Marie Curie postdoctoral fellow at the CNRS-Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, Université de Aix-Marseille.
At the time of the original publication of her Chapter 30 in 2004/2006, Andrée Tabouret-Keller was Professor Emeritus, University Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg II, Editor of Education et societies plurilingues/Educazione e societa plurilingue (Aosta, Italy), and President of Centre d’information sur l’education bilingue et plurilingue (Aosta, Italy). In addition, she was responsible for the Seminare ‘Comment lier epistemologie et politique’, Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, Paris and a member of Groupe d’etude du plurilinguisme en Europe (University Marc Bloch, Strasbourg). Her interests at that time were contemporary language contact phenomena, language and psychoanalysis.
Xiao-Lei Wang, Ph.D., is a Professor in the School of Education at Pace University. Her research covers a wide range of topics such as cultural parenting styles, nonverbal communication, multilingual acquisition and development, and moral development. Her recent books Growing up with Three Languages and Learning to Read and Write in the Multilingual Family focus on the challenges and strategies of raising multilingual children.
Li Wei is Professor of Applied Linguistics, Pro-Vice-Master for Research of Birkbeck College, University of London, and Director of the Birkbeck Graduate Research School, University of London. He is Principal Editor of the International Journal of Bilingualism and author and editor of many publications including the Blackwell Guide to Research Methods in Bilingualism and Multilingualism (with Melissa Moyer, 2008), which won the 2009 British Association for Applied Linguistics Book Prize.
Wayne E. Wright is an Associate Professor in the Department of Bicultural-Bilingual Studies at the University of Texas at San Antonio. He is editor of the Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement and is the book review editor for the International Multilingual Research Journal. His research related to language and educational policies and programs for language minority students has been published widely in books and leading academic journals. He is the author of Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners: Theory, Research, Policy, Practice (2010). He has many years of experience teaching in bilingual (Khmer–English) and ESL classrooms with students from kindergarten to adults, and was a Fulbright Scholar in Cambodia at the Royal University of Phnom Penh.
Introduction
TEJ K. BHATIA AND WILLIAM C. RITCHIE
In addressing issues in the study of bilingualism and multilingualism, one immediately encounters a terminological issue. The terms bilingualism and multilingualism have come to be used, respectively, to refer to the knowledge and use of two languages and the knowledge and use of three or more languages. Hence, a term is needed to refer to the full range of phenomena including both bilingualism and multilingualism in these senses. Rather than repeat the awkward ‘bi-/multilingualism’ in this introduction and the other introductions in this volume, we will use the term plurilingualism to refer to both bilingualism and multilingualism, as Mackey (chapter 28, this volume) and others have proposed.
Whatever the terminology, there is no doubt that plurilingualism constitutes a major fact of life in the world today. Plurilingualism is not such a rare phenomenon; there are, in fact, more bilingual/multilingual speakers in the world than there are monolinguals. The Ethnologue (2009) estimates more than 7,000 languages (7,358) are spoken in the 194 countries of the world, or approximately 38 languages per country. According to the Ethnologue, 94% of the world’s population employs approximately 5% of the world’s languages. Furthermore, many languages such as Hindi, Chinese, Arabic, Bengali, Punjabi, Spanish, Portuguese, and, of course, English are spoken in many countries around the globe. Such a linguistic situation necessitates that many people live with plurilingualism.
